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Excerpts: Psychological Operations Field Manual No. 33-1 Appendix I: PSYOP Techniques; HQ, Department of the Army
(31 August 1979) Propaganda Techniques Knowledge of propaganda techniques is necessary to
improve one's own
propaganda and to uncover enemy PSYOP stratagems. Techniques, however,
are not
substitutes for the procedures in PSYOP planning, development, or
dissemination. Techniques may be categorized as: Characteristics
of the content self-evident No
additional information is required to recognize the characteristics of
this
type of propaganda. "Name calling" and the use of slogans are
techniques of this nature. Additional
information required to be recognized Additional
information is required by the target or analyst for the use of this
technique
to be recognized. "Lying" is an example of this technique. The
audience or analyst must have additional information in order to know
whether a
lie is being told. Evident
only after extended output: "Change
of pace" is an example of this technique. Neither the audience nor the
analyst can know that a change of pace has taken place until various
amounts of
propaganda have been brought into focus.
Nature
of the arguments used: An
argument is
a reason, or a series of reasons, offered as to why the audience should
behave,
believe, or think in a certain manner. An argument is expressed or
implied.
Inferred
intent of the originator: This
technique refers to the effect the propagandist wishes to achieve on
the target
audience. "Divisive" and "unifying" propaganda fall within
this technique. It might also be classified on the basis of the effect
it has
on an audience. Self-Evident technique ~
Appeal
to Authority.
Appeals to authority cite prominent figures to
support a position idea, argument, or course of action. Assertion.
Assertions are positive
statements presented as fact. They imply that what is stated is
self-evident
and needs no further proof. Assertions may or may not be true. Bandwagon and Inevitable Victory.
Bandwagon-and-inevitable-victory appeals attempt to persuade the target
audience to take a course of action "everyone else is taking."
"Join the crowd." This technique reinforces people's natural desire
to be on the winning side. This technique is used to convince the
audience that
a program is an expression of an irresistible mass movement and that it
is in
their interest to join. "Inevitable victory" invites those not
already on the bandwagon to join those already on the road to certain
victory.
Those already, or partially, on the bandwagon are reassured that
staying aboard
is the best course of action. Obtain Disapproval. This technique is
used to get the audience to disapprove an action or idea by suggesting
the idea
is popular with groups hated, feared, or held in contempt by the target
audience.
Thus, if a group which supports a policy is led to believe that
undesirable,
subversive, or contemptible people also support it, the members of the
group
might decide to change their position. Glittering Generalities. Glittering
generalities are intensely emotionally appealing words so closely
associated
with highly valued concepts and beliefs that they carry conviction
without
supporting information or reason. They appeal to such emotions as love
of
country, home; desire for peace, freedom, glory, honor, etc. They ask
for
approval without examination of the reason. Though the words and
phrases are
vague and suggest different things to different people, their
connotation is
always favorable: "The concepts and programs of the propagandist are
always
good, desirable, virtuous." Generalities may gain or lose effectiveness with changes
in conditions. They
must, therefore, be responsive to current conditions. Phrases which
called up
pleasant associations at one time may evoke unpleasant or unfavorable
connotations
at another, particularly if their frame of reference has been altered. Vagueness.
Generalities are
deliberately vague so that the audience may supply its own
interpretations. The
intention is to move the audience by use of undefined phrases, without
analyzing their validity or attempting to determine their
reasonableness or
application. Rationalization.
Individuals or
groups may use favorable generalities to rationalize questionable acts
or
beliefs. Vague and pleasant phrases are often used to justify such
actions or
beliefs. Simplification.
Favorable
generalities are used to provide simple answers to complex social,
political,
economic, or military problems. Transfer. This
is a technique of
projecting positive or negative qualities (praise or blame) of a
person,
entity, object, or value (an individual, group, organization, nation,
patriotism, etc.) to another in order to make the second more
acceptable or to
discredit it. This technique is generally used to transfer blame from
one
member of a conflict to another. It evokes an emotional response which
stimulates the target to identify with recognized authorities. Least of Evils.
This is a technique
of acknowledging that the course of action being taken is perhaps
undesirable
but that any alternative would result in an outcome far worse. This
technique
is generally used to explain the need for sacrifices or to justify the
seemingly harsh actions that displease the target audience or restrict
personal
liberties. Projecting blame on the enemy for the unpleasant or
restrictive
conditions is usually coupled with this technique. Name Calling or Substitutions of Names or Moral Labels. This technique attempts to arouse
prejudices in an
audience by labeling the object of the propaganda campaign as something
the target
audience fears, hates, loathes, or finds undesirable. Types of name calling: Direct name calling is
used when the audience is sympathetic or neutral. It is a simple,
straightforward attack on an opponent or opposing idea. Indirect
name calling is used
when direct name calling would antagonize the audience. It is a label
for the
degree of attack between direct name calling and insinuation. Sarcasm
and
ridicule are employed with this technique. Cartoons,
illustrations, and
photographs are used in name calling, often with deadly effect. Dangers
inherent in name
calling: In its extreme form,
name
calling may indicate that the propagandist has lost his sense of
proportion or
is unable to conduct a positive campaign. Before using this technique,
the
propagandist must weigh the benefits against the possible harmful
results. lt
is best to avoid use of this device.The obstacles are formidable, based
primarily on the human tendency to close ranks against a stranger. For
example,
a group may despise, dislike, or even hate one of its leaders, even
openly
criticize him, but may (and probably will) resent any nongroup member
who
criticizes and makes disparaging remarks against that leader. Pinpointing the Enemy: This is a form
of simplification in which a complex situation is reduced to the point
where
the "enemy" is unequivocally identified. For example, the president
of country X is forced to declare a state of emergency in order to
protect the
peaceful people of his country from the brutal, unprovoked aggression
by the
leaders of country X. Plain Folks or Common Man: The
"plain folks" or "common man" approach attempts to convince
the audience that the propagandist's positions reflect the common sense
of the
people. It is designed to win the confidence of the audience by
communicating
in the common manner and style of the audience. Propagandists use
ordinary
language and mannerisms (and clothes in face-to-face and audiovisual
communications) in attempting to identify their point of view with that
of the
average person. With the plain folks device, the propagandist can win
the
confidence of persons who resent or distrust foreign sounding,
intellectual
speech, words, or mannerisms. The audience can be persuaded to identify its
interests with those of
the propagandist: Presenting soldiers as
plain folks. The propagandist
wants
to make the enemy feel he is fighting against soldiers who are "decent,
everyday folks" much like himself; this helps to counter themes that
paint
the opponent as a"bloodthirsty" killer. Presenting
civilians as plain
folks. The "plain folks" or
"common man" device also can help to convince the enemy that the
opposing nation is not composed of arrogant, immoral, deceitful,
aggressive,
warmongering people, but of people like himself, wishing to live at
peace. Humanizing
leaders. This technique paints a
more human portrait of US
and friendly military and civilian leaders. It humanizes them so that
the
audience looks upon them as similar human beings or, preferably, as
kind, wise,
fatherly figures. Categories of Plain Folk
Devices: Vernacular. This is the contemporary language of a
specific
region or people as it is commonly spoken or written and includes
songs,
idioms, and jokes. The current vernacular of the specific target
audience must
be used. Dialect. Dialect is a variation in pronunciation,
grammar,
and vocabulary from the norm of a region or nation. When used by the
propagandist, perfection is required. This technique is best left to
those to
whom the dialect is native, because native level speakers are generally
the
best users of dialects in propaganda appeals. Errors. Scholastic pronunciation, enunciation,
and delivery
give the impression of being artificial. To give the impression of
spontaneity,
deliberately hesitate between phrases, stammer, or mispronounce words.
When not
overdone, the effect is one of deep sincerity. Errors in written
material may
be made only when they are commonly made by members of the reading
audience.
Generally, errors should be restricted to colloquialisms. Homey
words. Homey words are forms of
"virtue words"
used in the everyday life of the average man. These words are familiar
ones,
such as "home," "family," "children,"
"farm," "neighbors," or cultural equivalents. They evoke a
favorable emotional response and help transfer the sympathies of the
audience
to the propagandist. Homey words are widely used to evoke nostalgia.
Care must
be taken to assure that homey messages addressed to enemy troops do not
also
have the same effect on US/friendly forces. If the
propaganda or the
propagandist lacks naturalness, there may be an adverse backlash. The
audience
may resent what it considers attempts to mock it, its language, and its
ways. Social Disapproval. This is a technique by which the
propagandist marshals group
acceptance and suggests that attitudes or actions contrary to the one
outlined
will result in social rejection, disapproval, or outright ostracism.
The
latter, ostracism, is a control practice widely used within peer groups
and
traditional societies. Virtue Words.
These are words in the value system of the target audience which tend
to
produce a positive image when attached to a person or issue. Peace,
happiness,
security, wise leadership, freedom, etc., are virtue words. Slogans. A
slogan is a brief striking phrase that may include labeling and
stereotyping.
If ideas can be sloganized, they should be, as good slogans are
self-perpetuating. Testimonials.
Testimonials are quotations, in or out of context, especially cited to
support
or reject a given policy, action, program, or personality. The
reputation or
the role (expert, respected public figure, etc.) of the individual
giving the
statement is exploited. The testimonial places the official sanction of
a
respected person or authority on a propaganda message. This is done in
an
effort to cause the target audience to identify itself with the
authority or to
accept the authority's opinions and beliefs as its own. Several types
of
testimonials are: Official Sanction. The testimonial authority must have given
the endorsement or be
clearly on record as having approved the attributed idea, concept,
action, or
belief. Four
factors are involved: Accomplishment.
People have confidence in an authority who has demonstrated outstanding
ability
and proficiency in his field.This accomplishment should be related to
the
subject of the testimonial. Identification with
the target. People have
greater
confidence in an authority with whom they have a common bond. For
example, the
soldier more readily trusts an officer with whom he has undergone
similar
arduous experiences than a civilian authority on military subjects. Position
of authority. The official
position of authority may instill
confidence in the testimony; i.e., head of state, division commander,
etc. Inanimate
objects. Inanimate objects may be
used in the testimonial
device. In such cases, the propagandist seeks to transfer physical
attributes
of an inanimate object to the message. The Rock of Gibraltar, for
example, is a
type of inanimate object associated with steadfast strength. Personal
Sources of
Testimonial Authority: Enemy leaders. The enemy target audience will
generally place great
value on its high level military leaders as a source of information. Fellow
soldiers. Because of their common
experiences, soldiers form a
bond of comradeship. As a result, those in the armed forces are
inclined to pay
close attention to what other soldiers have to say. Opposing
leaders. Testimonials of leaders
of the opposing nation are
of particular value in messages that outline war aims and objectives
for
administering the enemy nation after it capitulates. Famous
scholars, writers, and
other personalities. Frequently,
statements
of civilians known to the target as authoritative or famous scholars,
writers,
scientists, commentators, etc., can be effectively used in propaganda
messages. Nonpersonal
Sources of
Testimonial Authority: Institutions, ideologies,
national flags,
religious, and other nonpersonal sources are often used. The creeds,
beliefs,
principles, or dogmas of respected authorities or other public figures
may make
effective propaganda testimonials. Factors To Be Considered: Plausibility. The testimonial must be plausible to
the target
audience. The esteem in which an authority is held by the target
audience will
not always transfer an implausible testimonial into effective
propaganda. False
testimonials. Never use false
testimonials. Highly selective
testimonials? Yes. Lies (fabrications)? Never. Fabricated (false)
testimonials
are extremely vulnerable because their lack of authenticity makes them
easy to
challenge and discredit. Propaganda Techniques
which are Based on
Characteristics of the Content but which Require Additional Information
on the
Part of an Analyst to be Recognized
Incredible
truths. There are times when
the unbelievable (incredible)
truth not only can but should be used. Among these occasions are: When the psychological
operator is certain that a vitally important event will take place. A
catastrophic event, or one of
significant tactical or strategic importance, unfavorable to the enemy
has
occurred and the news has been hidden from the enemy public or troops. The
enemy government has denied
or glossed over an event detrimental to its cause. A
double-cutting edge.
This technique has a double-cutting edge: It increases
the credibility of the US/friendly psychological operator while
decreasing the
credibility of the enemy to the enemy's target audience. Advanced
security
clearance must be obtained before using this technique so that
operations or
projects will not be jeopardized or compromised. Actually,
propagandists using
this technique will normally require access to special compartmented
information and facilities to avoid compromise of other sensitive
operations or
projects of agencies of the US Government. Though such news will be
incredible
to the enemy public, it should be given full play by the psychological
operator. This event and its significance will eventually become known
to the
enemy public in spite of government efforts to hide it. The public will
recall
(the psychological operator will "help" the recall process) that the
incredible news was received from US/allied sources. They will also
recall the
deception of their government. The prime requirement in using this
technique is
that the disseminated incredible truth must be or be certain to become
a
reality. Insinuation.
Insinuation is used to
create or stir up the suspicions of the target audience against ideas,
groups,
or individuals in order to divide an enemy. The propagandist hints,
suggests,
and implies, allowing the audience to draw its own conclusions. Latent
suspicions and cleavages within the enemy camp are exploited in an
attempt to
structure them into active expressions of disunity which weaken the
enemy's war
effort. Exploitable vulnerabilities.
Potential cleavages which may be exploited include the following: Political differences
between the enemy nation and its allies or satellites. Ethnic
and regional differences. Religious,
political, economic,
or social differences. History
of civilian animosity or
unfair treatment toward enemy soldiers. Comforts
available to rear area
soldiers and not available to combat soldiers. People
versus the bureaucracy or
hierarchy. Political
differences between the
ruling elite, between coalitions members, or between rulers and those
out of
power. Differences
showing a few
benefiting at the expense of the general populace. Unequal
or inequitable tax
burdens, or the high level of taxes. The audience should be informed of
hidden
taxes. The
scarcity of consumer goods
for the general public and their availability to the various elites and
the
dishonest. Costs of
present government
policies in terms of lost opportunities to accomplish constructive
socially
desirable goals. The
powerlessness of the
individual. (This may be used to split the audience from the policies
of its
government by disassociating its members from those policies.) This
technique
could be used in preparing a campaign to gain opposition to those
government
policies. Insinuation
devices. A number
of devices are available to exploit these
and similar vulnerabilities: Leading questions: The propagandist may ask questions
which suggest only
one possible answer. Thus, the question, "What is there to do now that
your unit is surrounded and you are completely cut off?" insinuates
that
surrender or desertion is the only reasonable alternative to
annihilation. Humor: Humor can be an effective form of
insinuation. Jokes
and cartoons about the enemy find a ready audience among those persons
in the
target country or military camp who normally reject straightforward
accusations
or assertions. Jokes about totalitarian leaders and their subordinates
often
spread with ease and rapidity. However, the psychological operator must
realize
that appreciation of humor differs among target groups and so keep
humor within
the appropriate cultural context. Pure
motives. This technique makes it
clear that the side
represented by the propagandist is acting in the best interests of the
target
audience, insinuating that the enemy is acting to the contrary. For
example,
the propagandist can use the theme that a satellite force fighting on
the side
of the enemy is insuring the continued subjugation of its country by
helping
the common enemy. Guilt
by association: Guilt by
association links a person, group, or idea
to other persons, groups, or ideas repugnant to the target audience.
The
insinuation is that the connection is not mutual, accidental, or
superficial. Rumor: Malicious rumors are also a potentially
effective
form of insinuation. Pictorial
and photographic
propaganda: A photograph,
picture, or
cartoon can often insinuate a derogatory charge more effectively than
words.
The combination of words and photograph, picture, or cartoon can be far
more
effective. In this content, selected and composite photographs can be
extremely
effective . Vocal: Radio propagandists can artfully suggest
a
derogatory notion, not only with the words they use, but also by the
way in
which they deliver them. Significant pauses, tonal inflections,
sarcastic
pronunciation, ridiculing enunciation, can be more subtle than written
insinuation. Card
stacking or selective
omission. This is the process of
choosing
from a variety of facts only those which support the propagandist's
purpose. In
using this technique, facts are selected and presented which most
effectively
strengthen and authenticate the point of view of the propagandist. It
includes
the collection of all available material pertaining to a subject and
the
selection of that material which most effectively supports the
propaganda line.
Card stacking, case making, and censorship are all forms of selection.
Success
or failure depends on how successful the propagandist is in selecting
facts or
"cards" and presenting or "stacking" them. Increase prestige. In time of armed conflict, leading
personalities, economic and social
systems, and other institutions making up a nation are constantly
subjected to
propaganda attacks. Card stacking is used to counter these attacks by
publicizing and reiterating the best qualities of the institutions,
concepts,
or persons being attacked. Like most propaganda techniques, card
stacking is
used to supplement other methods. The technique may also be
used to describe a
subject as virtuous or evil and to give simple answers to a complicated
subject. An intelligent propagandist
makes his case by
imaginative selection of facts.
The work of the card stacker in using selected facts is
divided into two
main phases: First, the propagandist
selects only favorable facts and presents them to the target in such a
manner
as to obtain a desired reaction. Second,
the propagandist uses
these facts as a basis for conclusions, trying to lead the audience
into
accepting the conclusions by accepting the facts presented. Presenting
the other side.
Some persons in a target audience believe that
neither belligerent is entirely virtuous. To them propaganda solely in
terms of
right and wrong may not be credible. Agreement with minor aspects of
the
enemy's point of view may overcome this cynicism. Another use of
presenting the
other side is to reduce the impact of propaganda that opposing
propagandists
are likely to be card stacking (selective omission). Lying and distortion. Lying is
stating as truth that which is contrary to fact. For example,
assertions may be
lies. This technique will not be used by US personnel. It is presented
for use
of the analyst of enemy propaganda. Simplification.
This is a technique
in which the many facts of a situation are reduced so the right or
wrong, good
or evil, of an act or decision is obvious to all. This technique
(simplification) provides simple solutions for complex problems. By
suggesting
apparently simple solutions for complex problems, this technique offers
simplified interpretations of events, ideas, concepts, or
personalities.
Statements are positive and firm;qualifying words are never used. Simplification may be used to sway uneducated and
educated audiences. This
is true because many persons are well educated or highly skilled,
trained
specialists in a specific field, but the limitations of time and energy
often
force them to turn to and accept simplifications to understand, relate,
and
react to other areas of interest. Simplification has the following characteristics: It thinks for others: Some people accept information which they
cannot verify personally as
long as the source is acceptable to them or the authority is considered
expert.
Others absorb whatever they read, see, or hear with little or no
discrimination. Some people are too lazy or unconcerned to think
problems
through. Others are uneducated and willingly accept convenient
simplifications.
It is concise:
Simplification gives the impression of going to the heart of the matter
in a
few words. The average member of the target audience will not even
consider
that there may be another answer to the problem. It builds ego:
Some people are reluctant to believe that any field of endeavor, except
their
own, is difficult to understand. For example, a layman is pleased to
hear that
'"law is just common sense dressed up in fancy language," or
"modern art is really a hodgepodge of aimless experiment or
nonsense." Such statements reinforce the ego of the lay audience. It is
what they would like to believe, because they are afraid that law and
modern
art may actually be beyond their understanding. Simple explanations are
given
for complex subjects and problems. Characteristics of
Content which may become
Evident when Numerous Pieces of Output are Examined
Change
of Pace. Change of pace is a
technique of switching from
belligerent to peaceful output, from "hot" to "cold," from
persuasion to threat, from gloomy prophecy to optimism, from emotion to
fact. Stalling.
Stalling is a technique of
deliberately withholding information until its timeliness is past,
thereby
reducing the possibility of undesired impact. Shift of Scene.
With this technique,
the propagandist replaces one "field of battle" with another. It is
an attempt to take the spotlight off an unfavorable situation or
condition by
shifting it to another, preferably of the opponent, so as to force the
enemy to
go on the defense. Repetition ~ An idea or position is repeated in an attempt to elicit
an almost automatic
response from the audience or to reinforce an audience's opinion or
attitude.
This technique is extremely valid and useful because the human being is
basically a creature of habit and develops skills and values by
repetition
(like walking, talking, code of ethics, etc.). An idea or position may
be
repeated many times in one message or in many messages. The intent is
the same
in both instances, namely, to elicit an immediate response or to
reinforce an
opinion or attitude. The audience is not
familiar with the details of the threat posed. Ignorance of the details
can be
used to pose a threat and build fear. Members
of the audience are
self-centered. The
target can take immediate
action to execute simple, specific instructions. Fear
of change. People
fear change, particularly sudden, imposed
change over which they have no control. They fear it will take from
them
status, wealth, family, friends, comfort, safety, life, or limb. That's
why the
man in the foxhole hesitates to leave it. He knows and is accustomed to
the
safety it affords. He is afraid that moving out of his foxhole will
expose him
to new and greater danger. That is why the psychological campaign must
give him
a safe, honorable way out of his predicament or situation. Terrorism. The
United States is
absolutely opposed to the use of terror or terror tactics. But the
psychological operator can give a boomerang effect to enemy terror,
making it
reverberate against the practitioner, making him repugnant to his own
people,
and all others who see the results of his heinous savagery. This can be
done by
disseminating fully captioned photographs in the populated areas of the
terrorist's homeland. Such leaflets will separate civilians from their
armed
forces; it will give them second thoughts about the decency and
honorableness
of their cause, make them wonder about the righteousness of their
ideology, and
make the terrorists repugnant to them. Followup leaflets can "fire the
flames" of repugnancy, indignation, and doubt, as most civilizations
find
terror repugnant. In third countries. Fully captioned
photographs depicting terroristic acts may be widely distributed in
third
countries (including the nation sponsoring the enemy) where they will
instill a
deep revulsion in the general populace. Distribution in neutral
countries is
particularly desirable in order to swing the weight of unbiased
humanitarian
opinion against the enemy. The enemy may try to rationalize and excuse its conduct
(terroristic), but
in so doing, it will compound the adverse effect of its actions,
because it can
never deny the validity of true photographic representations of its
acts. Thus,
world opinion will sway to the side of the victimized people. |