Chapter 6
States of Consciousness

Some Early Definitions

Consciousness: All the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of at any instant

Waking consciousness: Normal, clear alert awareness

Altered state of consciousness (ASC): Changes that occur in quality and pattern of mental activity; different from waking consciousness

More on Sleep

Sleep-deprivation psychosis: Confusion, disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations that occur because of sleep loss 

Sleep patterns: Daily rhythms of sleep and waking

Measuring Sleep Changes

Electroencephalograph (EEG): Brain-wave machine; amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain

Beta waves: Small, fast waves associated with alertness and wakefulness

Alpha waves: Large, slow waves associated with relaxation and falling asleep

Stages of Sleep

Stage 1

Small, irregular waves produced in light sleep (people may or may not say they were asleep)

Hypnic jerk: Reflex muscle twitch

Stage 2

Deeper sleep; sleep spindles (short bursts of distinctive brain-wave activity) appear

Stage 3

Deeper sleep; delta waves appear; very large and slow

Stage 4

Deepest level of normal sleep; almost purely delta waves

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep

Associated with dreaming; sleep is very light

Return to Stage 1 sleep EEG patterns

Body is very still during REM sleep

Non-REM (NREM) Sleep

Occurs during stages 1, 2, 3, and 4; no rapid eye movement occurs

90 percent of non-REM sleep is dream-free

Seems to help us recover from daily fatigue

Sleep Disturbances

Insomnia: Difficulty in getting to sleep, frequent nighttime awakenings, or waking too early

Sleeping pills exacerbate insomnia; cause decrease in REM and Stage 4 sleep and may cause dependency

Drug-dependency insomnia: Sleeplessness that follows withdrawal from sleeping pills

Lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep is called REM behavioral disorder

Temporary Insomnia

Brief period of sleeplessness caused by worry, stress, and excitement

Avoid fighting it and read a book, for example, until you’re struggling to stay awake

Chronic Insomnia

Exists if sleeping troubles last for more than three weeks

Adopt regular schedule; go to bed at the same time each night, for example

Stimulus Control

Linking a particular response with specific stimuli

Tryptophan

Amino acid (chemical) that increases serotonin levels and therefore leads to sleepiness

Sleep Disturbances

Sleepwalking (somnambulism): Occurs in NREM sleep during Stages 3 and 4

Sleeptalking: Speaking while asleep; occurs in NREM sleep

Some Other Sleep Disturbances

Nightmares: Bad dreams that occur during REM sleep 

May occur once or twice a month; brief and easily (unfortunately) remembered

Imagery rehearsal: Mentally rehearse the changed dream before you go to sleep again; may help to eliminate nightmares

Night Terrors

Night terrors: Total panic occurs; hallucinations may occur during Stage 4 NREM sleep

Most common in childhood; may occur in adults

Not remembered

Sleep Apnea

Repeated interruption during sleep

Produces loud snoring with short silences and gasps for breath

Apnea can be treated by

Surgery

Weight loss

Breathing mask

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
(SIDS; Crib Death)

Sudden, unexplained death of healthy infant  (infants should sleep on back to try to prevent it)

May be related to sleep apnea

May have weak arousal reflex

May be related to secondhand smoke

Remember “back to sleep”

Narcolepsy

Sudden, irresistible sleep attacks

May suffer from catalepsy: Sudden, temporary muscle paralysis leading to complete body collapse

Fall directly into REM sleep

REM Rebound

Occurrence of extra REM sleep following REM sleep deprivation

Dreams

Psychodynamic (Freudian) theory: Emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces

Wish fulfillment: Freudian belief that many dreams are expressions of unconscious desires

Dream symbols: Images in dreams that have a deeper symbolic meaning

Dream Content (Freud)

Manifest: Obvious, visible meaning of dream

Latent: Hidden symbolic meaning of dream

Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

Random activity in lower brain centers results in the manufacture of relatively bizarre dreams by higher brain centers

Neurocognitive Dream Theory

Dreams reflect everyday working thoughts and emotions

Hypnosis

Altered state of consciousness characterized by intensely narrowed attention and increased openness to suggestion

Mesmer: Believed he could cure diseases by passing magnets over body; true “animal magnetism” (“mesmerize” means to hypnotize)

Mesmer was, in effect, a fraud and a quack

Must cooperate to become hypnotized

Hypnotic Susceptibility

How easily a person can be hypnotized

Basic suggestion effect: Tendency of hypnotized people to carry out suggested actions as though they were involuntary

Hidden observer: Detached part of hypnotized person’s awareness that silently observes events

Hypnosis Can…

Help people relax

Reduce pain

Get people to make better progress in therapy

Hypnosis cannot…

Produce acts of superhuman strength

Produce age regression

Force you to do things against your will

Stage Hypnosis

Simulation of hypnotic effects

“Tricks of the Trade”

Waking suggestibility: People on stage do not want to spoil the act, so they will follow any instruction

Selection of responsive subjects: Any “volunteer” who does not get hypnotized in the group on stage and does not follow instructions is “thrown off”

More “Tricks of the Trade”

Hypnotists as director: Once they are in a trance, the “volunteers” are suddenly the show’s stars, and they will act like it.  The hypnotists only need to direct them

The hypnosis label disinhibits: On stage, once you are “in a hypnotic trance,” your responsibility for actions is removed; you can do whatever you want!

Stage hypnotists use tricks: Stage hypnosis is 50% deception and 50% taking advantage of the situation

Conclusion: Stage hypnotists entertain; they rarely hypnotize

Meditation

Mental exercise for producing relaxation or heightened awareness

Concentrative meditation: You attend to a single focal point, object, or thought

Mindfulness meditation: Based on widening attention to become aware of everything experienced at any given moment

Sensory Deprivation (SD)

Any major reduction in amount or variety of sensory stimulation

Benefits

Sensory enhancement

Relaxation

Changing habits

Benefits called REST: Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy

Drugs and Altered States of Consciousness

Psychoactive drug: Substance capable of altering attention, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, emotion, or perception

Stimulant: Substance that increases activity in body and nervous system

Depressant: Substance that decreases activity in body and nervous system

Physical Dependence

Addiction based on drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms

Drug tolerance: Reduction in body’s response to a drug

Withdrawal symptoms: Physical illness and discomfort following withdrawal of a drug

Psychological Dependence

Drug dependence based primarily on psychological or emotional needs

Drug is necessary to maintain comfort and well-being

Crave drug and its rewarding qualities

Stimulants

Amphetamines: Synthetic stimulants that excite nervous system

Dexedrine and methamphetamine are two types of stimulants

Amphetamine psychosis: Loss of contact with reality because of amphetamine use; user tends to have paranoid delusions

Cocaine

Central nervous system stimulant derived from leaves of coca plant

From 1886-1906, Coca-Cola did indeed have cocaine in it!

Highly addictive drug

Anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure): Common after cocaine withdrawal

MDMA (Ecstasy)

Chemically similar to amphetamine; created by small variations in the drug’s structure

May cause severe liver damage and fatal heat exhaustion

Repeated use damages serotonergic brain cells

Caffeine

Most frequently used psychoactive drug in North America; present in colas, chocolate, coffee, tea

Causes tremors, sweating, talkativeness, tinnitus; suppresses fatigue or sleepiness, increases alertness

Caffeinism

Physiological dependence on caffeine

Symptoms: Insomnia, irritability, loss of appetite, chills, racing heart, elevated body temperature

May be hazardous to pregnant women if used excessively; may cause birth defects

Nicotine

Natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco

In large doses may cause stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, tremors

Addictive

Smoking is one cause of lung cancer

Sum: Don’t smoke; smoking kills (so does chewing tobacco)

Barbiturates

Sedative drugs that depress brain activity

Seconal and Nembutal are two types

GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate)

Central nervous system (CNS) depressant that relaxes and sedates; combination of degreasing solvent and drain cleaner

Sedative effects may result in nausea, loss of muscle control, and either sleep or a loss of consciousness

Inhibits gag reflex, so some choke to death on their own vomit

Tranquilizers

Lower anxiety and reduce tension

Valium, Xanax, Halcion, and Librium are four types

Rohypnol: Related to Valium; lowers inhibitions and produces relaxation or intoxication.  Larger doses can induce short-term amnesia and sleep

Date rape drug, because it’s odorless and tasteless (“roofies”)

Drug Interaction

Combined effect of two drugs that exceeds addition of one drug’s effects to the other

Alcohol

Ethyl alcohol: Intoxicating element in fermented and distilled liquors

NOT a stimulant but does lower inhibitions

Depressant

Alcohol myopia: Shortsighted thinking and perception that occurs during alcohol intoxication

Binge Drinking

Consuming five or more drinks in a short time, or four or more for women

Serious sign of alcohol abuse

May lead up to 10 percent loss of brain power, especially memory

Treatment for Alcohol Abuse and Dependence

Detoxification: Withdrawal of the person from alcohol; occurs in a medical setting and is tightly controlled; often necessary before long-term treatment begins

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA): Worldwide self-help organization composed of recovering alcoholics; emphasizes admitting powerlessness over alcohol usage and wanting to recover

Spiritual component

Free; around for over 70 years!

An AA Alternative

Rational Recovery, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety (SOS): Non-spiritual AA Alternative

Some Hallucinogens

A substance that alters or distorts sensory impressions

Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD): Hallucinogen that can produce hallucinations and other psychotic-like symptoms

Mescaline (peyote) and psilocybin (magic mushrooms) are two other types of hallucinogens

PCP (Angel Dust)

Initially can have hallucinogenic effects; also an anesthetic and has stimulant and depressant effects

Marijuana (Pot)

Cannabis sativa (marijuana; pot): Leaves and flowers of the hemp plant

Active Chemical: THC

Effects: Relaxation, time distortion, perceptual distortions

Psychologically and physiologically addictive

Some Health Risks of Using Marijuana

May increase risk of prostate and cervical cancer

May suppress immune system, perhaps increasing risk of disease

THC may cause a higher rate of miscarriages

Activity levels in the cerebellum are lower than normal in pot users

Pot may damage some of the brain’s memory centers

Dream Interpretation

Freud: Four dream processes (mental filters) that hide true purposes of dreams

Condensation

Combining several people, objects, or events into a single dream image

Displacement

Directing emotions or actions toward safe or unimportant dream images

Symbolization

Nonliteral expression of dream content

Secondary Elaboration

Making a dream more logical and complete while remembering it

Dream Interpretation: A Different View

Perls: Most dreams are a special message about what is missing in our lives, what we avoid doing, or feelings that we need to re-own

Lucid Dreaming

Person feels fully awake within the dream and feels capable of normal thought and action