Chapter 7

Conditioning and Learning

Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

Does NOT include temporary changes due to disease, fatigue, injury, maturation, or drugs, since these do NOT qualify as learning, even though they can alter behavior

Motivation

Reinforcement: Any event that increases the probability that a response will recur

Response: Any identifiable behavior

Internal: Faster heartbeat

Observable: Eating, scratching

Learning: More Key Terms

Antecedents: Events that precede a response

Consequences: Effects that follow a response

Classical Conditioning and Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who studied digestion

Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder

Also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning

Reflex: Automatic, non-learned response

Pavlovian Terms

Neutral stimulus: Stimulus that does not evoke a response

Conditioned stimulus (CS): Stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response

Pavlovian Terms:

Unconditioned response (UCR): An innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned response (CR): A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition: Training period in conditioning when a response is strengthened

Higher-order conditioning: A conditioned stimulus (CS) is used to reinforce further learning; the CS is used as though it were a UCS 

Expectancy: Expectation about how events are interconnected

Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement

Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction

Stimulus generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus 

Stimulus discrimination: The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

Classical Conditioning in Humans

Phobia: Fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists (e.g., arachnophobia; fear of spiders)

Conditioned emotional response (CER): Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus

Fixing Phobias

Desensitization: Decreasing fear or anxiety by exposing phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed

Vicarious classical conditioning: Learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another’s emotional reactions

Operant Conditioning

Learning is based on the consequences of responding; we associate responses with their consequences

Law of effect (Thorndike): The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has: responses that lead to desired effects are repeated; those that lead to undesired effects are not

Operant Reinforcer

Any event that follows a response and increases its likelihood of recurring

Skinner box: Apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals

Response-contingent reinforcement: Reinforcement given after a desired response occurs

Timing of Reinforcement

Operant reinforcement most effective when given immediately after a correct response

Response chain: A linked series of actions that leads to reinforcement 

Superstitious behaviors: Behaviors that are repeated because they appear to produce reinforcement, even though they are not necessary

Shaping: Molding responses gradually in a step-by-step fashion to a desired pattern

Successive approximations: Ever-closer matches to the desired behavior

Operant Extinction: Learned responses that are NOT reinforced gradually fade away

Negative attention seeking: Using misbehavior to gain attention

Reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement: When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event

Negative reinforcement: When a response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant event  (Sound of the seatbelt buzzer ends when you put on the belt in the car) This ends  (takes away) discomfort

Punishment

Any event that follows a response and decreases the likelihood of it recurring (e.g., a spanking)

Response cost: Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made (e.g., Bob losing Xbox360 privileges)

Operant Reinforcers

Primary reinforcer: Non-learned and natural; satisfies physiological needs (e.g., food, water, sex)

Intracranial stimulation (ICS): Natural primary reinforcer; involves direct activation of brain’s “pleasure centers”

Secondary reinforcer: Learned reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, approval, praise); gains reinforcing properties by associating with a primary reinforcer

Token reinforcer: Tangible secondary reinforcer (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)

Social reinforcer: attention and approval (reinforcers) provided by other people

Feedback:Information about the effect of a response

Knowledge of results (KR): Informational feedback; almost always improves learning and performance

Programmed Instruction

Any learning format where information is presented in small amounts, gives immediate practice, and provides continuous feedback

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI): Learning is aided by computer-presented information and exercises

Educational simulations: Explore imaginary situations or “microworld” that simulates real-world problems (e.g., The Sims)

Reinforcement Concepts

Schedules of reinforcement: Plans for determining which responses will be reinforced

Continuous reinforcement: A reinforcer follows every correct response

Partial reinforcement: Reinforcers do NOT follow every response

Partial reinforcement effect: Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)

A set number of correct responses must be made to obtain a reinforcer

Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)

Varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer

Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)

A reinforcer is given only when a correct response is made after a set amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response

Variable Interval Schedule (VI)

Reinforcement is given for the first correct response made after a varied amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response

Stimulus Control

Stimuli that consistently precede a rewarded response tend to influence when and where the response will occur

Operant stimulus generalization: Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded operant reinforcement

Operant stimulus discrimination: Occurs when one learns to differentiate between antecedent stimuli that signal either an upcoming reward or a nonreward condition

Punishment

Punisher: Any consequence that reduces the frequency of a target behavior

Keys: Timing, consistency, and intensity 

Severe punishment: Intense punishment, capable of suppressing a response for a long period

Mild punishment: Weak punishment; usually slows responses temporarily

Punishment Concepts

Aversive stimulus: Stimulus that is painful or uncomfortable (e.g., a shock)

Escape learning: Learning to make a response to end an aversive stimulus

Avoidance learning: Learning to make a response to avoid, postpone, or prevent discomfort (e.g., not going to a doctor or dentist)

Punishment may also increase aggression

Cognitive Learning

Cognitive learning: Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipating

Cognitive map: Internal images or other mental representations of an area (maze, city, etc.) that underlie an ability to choose alternate paths to the same goal

Latent learning: Occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not demonstrated (or is hidden) until reinforcement is provided

Rote learning: Takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning a set of rules

Discovery learning: Based on insight and understanding

Modeling or Observational Learning  - BoBo Doll Study
(Albert Bandura)

Model: Someone who serves as an example in observational learning

Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person or by noting consequences of a person’s actions

Occurs before direct practice is allowed

Steps to Successful Modeling

Pay attention to model

Remember what was done

Observer must be able to reproduce modeled behavior

If a model is successful or his/her behavior is rewarded, behavior more likely to recur

Bandura created modeling theory with classic Bo-Bo doll (inflatable clown) experiments

Self-Managed Behavioral Principles

Choose a target behavior

Record a baseline

Establish goals

Choose reinforcers

Self-Managed Behavioral Principles

Record your progress

Reward successes

Adjust your plan as you learn more about your behavior

Premack Principle

Any high-frequency response can be used to reinforce a low-frequency response (e.g., no Nintendo DS until you finish your homework)

Self-recording: Self-management based on keeping records of response frequencies

How to Break Bad Habits

Alternate responses: Try to get the same reinforcement with a new response

Extinction: Try to discover what is reinforcing an unwanted response and remove, avoid, or delay the reinforcement

Response chains: Scramble the chain of events that leads to an undesired response

Cues and antecedents: Try to avoid, narrow down, or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit

Behavioral Contracting

Behavioral contract: Formal agreement stating behaviors to be changed and consequences that apply; written contract

State the rewards you will get, privileges you will forfeit, or punishments you must accept

Type the contract, sign it, and get a person you trust to sign it