Does NOT include temporary changes due to disease, injury, maturation, or drugs, since these do NOT qualify as learning even though they can alter behavior

 

Reinforcement: Any event that increases the probability that a response will recur

 

Response: Any identifiable behavior

Internal: Faster heartbeat

Observable: Eating, scratching

Antecedents: Events that precede a response are important for Classical Conditioning

Consequences: Effects that follow a response are important for Operant Conditioning

 

Classical conditioning:

Pavlov: Russian physiologist who studied digestion

Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder

Also known as Pavlovian or Classical Conditioning

Reflex: Automatic, non-learned response = unconditioned response

Unconditioned Stimulus

Unconditioned Response

Neutral Stimulus

Conditioned stimulus

Conditioned Response

 

Acquisition: Training period when a response is strengthened

Higher Order Conditioning: A conditioned stimulus (CS) is used to reinforce further learning 

Expectancy: Expectation about how events are interconnected

Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement

Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction

Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging when the conditioning stimulus was a bell)

Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., Rudy will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer))

Phobia: Fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists (e.g., arachnophobia (fear of spiders; see the movie!))

Phobia is a Classically Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus – child will develop phobia in response to a parent’s emotional reaction to an event – like seeing a spider and screaming.

Desensitization: Exposing phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed

Vicarious Classical Conditioning: Learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another’s emotional reactions

 

Operant Conditioning

Definition: Learning based on the consequences of responding; we associate responses with their consequences

Law of Effect (Thorndike): The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has; responses that lead to desired effects are repeated; those that lead to undesired effects are not repeated

Operant Reinforcer: Any event that follows a response and increases its likelihood of recurring – part of operant conditioning

Positive Reinforcement: When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event

Negative Reinforcement: When a response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant event (e.g., the bells in Fannie’s car stop when she puts the seatbelt on); ends discomfort

Punishment: Any event that follows a response and decreases the likelihood of it recurring (e.g., a spanking)

Response Cost: Reinforcer or positive thing is removed, e.g., losing X-Box privileges which is a form of punishment but the response costs refer to how severe

 

Timing of Reinforcement

Operant reinforcement most effective when given immediately after a correct response

 

Schedules of Reinforcement:

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Variable Interval

Fixed Ratio and Variable Ratio produce the highest rates of responding

 

Superstitious Behaviors: Behaviors that are repeated because they appear to produce reinforcement, even though it is not necessary

 

Shaping: Molding responses gradually in a step-by-step fashion to a desired pattern using successive approximations

Successive Approximations: Ever-closer matches – used to shape behavior like teaching a dog to sit on command – operant conditioning

 

Types of Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcer: Non-learned and natural; satisfies biological needs (e.g., food, water, sex)

Secondary Reinforcer: Learned Reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, approval, praise)

Token Reinforcer: Tangible secondary Reinforcer (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)

Social Reinforcer: Provided by other people (e.g., learned desires for attention and approval)

 

 

Stimulus Control

Stimuli that consistently precede a rewarded response tend to influence when and where the response will occur

Operant Stimulus Generalization: Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded operant reinforcement

Operant Stimulus Discrimination: Occurs when one learns to differentiate between the stimuli that signal either an upcoming reward or a no reward condition

 

Punishment

Punisher: Any consequence that reduces the frequency of a target behavior

Keys: Timing, consistency, and intensity 

Severe Punishment: Intense punishment, capable of suppressing a response for a long period

Mild Punishment: Weak punishment; usually slows responses temporarily

Aversive Stimulus: Stimulus that is painful or uncomfortable (e.g., a shock)

Escape Learning: Learning to make a response to end an aversive stimulus

Avoidance Learning: Learning to make a response to avoid, postpone, or prevent discomfort (e.g., not going to a doctor or dentist)

Punishment may also increase aggression

 

Observational Learning

Model: Someone who serves as an example

Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person or by noting consequences of a person’s actions

Occurs before direct practice is allowed

Bandura created modeling theory with classic Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown) experiments

 

Memory

Memory: Active system that stores, organizes, alters, and recovers (retrieves) information

Encoding: Converting information into a useable form

Storage: Holding this information in memory

Retrieval: Taking memories out of storage

 

Sensory Memory

Storing an exact copy of incoming information for a few seconds (either what is seen or heard); the first stage of memory

Icon: A fleeting mental image or visual representation

Echo: After a sound is heard, a brief continuation of the activity in the auditory system

 

Short Term Memory

Storing small amounts of information briefly (7 items)

Working Memory: Part of STM; like a mental “scratchpad”

Selective Attention: Focusing (voluntarily) on a selected portion of sensory input (e.g., selective hearing)

Phonetically: Storing information by sound; how most things are stored in STM

Very sensitive to interruption or interference

Maintenance rehearsal

Short Term Memory Tests:

Digit Span: Test of attention and short-term memory; string of numbers is recalled forward or backward 

Typically part of intelligence tests

Magic Number 7 (Plus or Minus 2): STM is limited to holding seven (plus or minus two) information bits at once

 

Information Bit: Meaningful single piece of information

 

Recoding: Reorganizing or modifying information in STM

Information Chunks: Bits of information that are grouped into larger chunks

 

Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information silently to prolong its presence in STM

 

Long Term Memory

Storing information relatively permanently

Stored on basis of meaning and importance

Unlimited

Elaborative Rehearsal

 

Measuring Memory

Tip-of-the Tongue (TOT): Feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable

Recall: Direct retrieval of facts or information

Serial Position Effect : Hardest to recall items in the middle of a list . Easiest to remember last items in a list because they are still in STM

 

 Recognition Memory: Previously learned material is correctly identified  like a multipe choice exam. Usually superior to recall

Distractors: False items included with a correct item

Wrong choices on multiple-choice tests

False Positive: False sense of recognition

 

Relearning: Learning again something that was previously learned - easier to learn to replay a song on a piano, not played for awhile then to learn to play from scratch 

Used to measure memory of prior learning

 

Eidetic Imagery – Perfect but Brief Visual Memory

Occurs when a person (usually a child) has visual images clear enough to be scanned or retained for at least 30 seconds

Usually projected onto a “plain” surface, like a blank piece of paper. Usually disappears during adolescence and is rare by adulthood

 

Forgetting

Ebbinghaus Curve of Forgetting

Nonsense Syllables: Meaningless three-letter words (fej, quf) that test learning and forgetting

Encoding Failure: When a memory was never formed in the first place

Memory Traces: Physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that occur when memories are stored

Memory Decay: When memory traces become weaker; fading or weakening of memories

Disuse: Theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not used or retrieved

 

Memory Cue: Any stimulus associated with a memory; usually enhances retrieval of a memory

A person will forget if cues are missing at retrieval time

 

State-Dependent Learning: When memory retrieval is influenced by body state; if your body state is the same at the time of learning AND the time of retrieval, retrievals will be improved 

 

Interference: Tendency for new memories to impair retrieval of older memories, and vice versa

Retroactive Interference: Tendency for new learning to interfere with retrieval of old learning

Proactive Interference: Prior learning inhibits (interferes with) recall of later learning

 

Positive Transfer: Mastery of one task aids learning or performing another

Negative Transfer: Mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another

 

Repression: Unconsciously pushing painful, embarrassing, or threatening memories out of awareness/consciousness

Motivated forgetting, according to some theories

Suppression: Consciously putting something painful or threatening out of mind or trying to keep it from entering awareness

 

Flashbulb Memories

Memories created during times of personal tragedy, accident, or other emotionally significant events

Where were you when you heard that terrorists had attacked the USA on September 11th, 2001?

Includes both positive and negative events

Not always accurate

Great confidence is placed in them even though they may be inaccurate

 

Memory Formation

Retrograde Amnesia: Forgetting events that occurred before an injury or trauma

Anterograde Amnesia: Forgetting events that follow an injury or trauma

Consolidation: Forming a long-term memory

Electroconvulsive Shock (ECS): Mild electrical shock passed through the brain, destroying any memory that is being formed; one way to prevent consolidation

 

 Memory Structures

 

Hippocampus: Brain structure associated with information passing from short-term memory into long-term memory

If damaged, person can no longer “create” long-term memories and thus will always live in the present

Memories prior to damage will remain intact

 

Intelligence

 

Global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment

Operational Definition: Operations used to measure a concept

Aptitude: Capacity for learning certain abilities

Multiple Aptitude Test: Test that measures two or more abilities

General Intelligence Test: Test that measures a wide variety of mental abilities

Reliability: A measure should give the same score each time the same person takes it

Test-Retest: Give test to a large group, then give exactly the same test to same group later

Split-Half: Making sure scores on one-half of a test match the scores on the other half

Validity: Ability of a test to measure what it is purported to measure

Criterion Validity: Comparing test scores to actual performance

Comparing SAT to college grades

 

Intelligence Tests

 In the U.S. are considered Culturally Biased and may favor white Americans

Culture-Fair Tests: Test designed to minimize importance of skills and knowledge that may be more common in some cultures than in others

 

Norm: Average score for a designated group of people

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Fifth Edition (SB5): Widely used individual intelligence test, derived directly from Alfred Binet’s first intelligence test; for ages 2-90!

Chronological Age: Person’s age in years

Mental Age: Average intellectual performance

Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Intelligence index; mental age divided by chronological age, then multiplied by 100

Average IQ in the USA is 100

 

Deviation IQ: Scores based on a person’s relative standing in his or her age group; how far above or below average a person’s score is, relative to other scores

IQ scores are not very dependable until a child reaches age 6

Terminal Decline: Abrupt decline in measured IQ about 5 years before death

 

 

 

Wechsler Test of Intelligence

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test-Third Edition (WAIS-III): Adult intelligence test that rates verbal and performance intelligence and abilities

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III): Downscaled version of the WAIS-III; for children aged 6 years to 16 years 11 months, 30 days

SB5 is better suited for children and adolescents

 

Performance Intelligence: Nonverbal intelligence; measured by solving puzzles, completing pictures, and assembling objects

Verbal Intelligence: Language intelligence; measured by answering questions involving vocabulary, information, arithmetic, and other language-oriented tasks

 

Verbal Subtest of WAIS

Information

Digit Span

General Comprehension

Similarities

Vocabulary

 

 

Performance Subtests of WAIS

Picture Arrangement

Digit Symbol

Picture Completion

Block Design

Object Assembly

 

WAIS may be less culturally bias then Stanford-Binet due to Performance Tests not found on the Stanford-Binet   

Bell Curve – Intelligence

Normal (Bell-Shaped) Curve: Most scores fall close to the average, and very few are found at the extremes

Average IQ Scores fall between 90 and 110.  This accounts for 67% of the population’s IQs with 33% divided between IQ score of less than 90 and over 110.

Having a high IQ (usually above 130) or special talents or abilities (playing Mozart at age 5

 

Dropping out of High School can dramatically lower IQ scores

 

Men and women do not appear to differ in overall intelligence

 

A strong correlation (about .50) exists between IQ and school grades

 

Mental Retardation

Presence of a developmental disability and an IQ score below 70; a significant impairment of adaptive behavior also figures into the definition

Adaptive Behavior: Basic skills such as dressing, eating, working, hygiene; necessary for self-care

Familial Retardation: Mild mental retardation that occurs in homes that have inadequate nutrition, intellectual stimulation, medical care, and emotional support

 

Organic Causes of Mental Retardation

Related to physical disorders

Birth Injuries: Lack of oxygen during delivery

Fetal Damage: Congenital problem; prenatal damage from disease, infection, or drug use by the mother

Metabolic Disorders: Disorder in metabolism; affects energy use and production in the body

Genetic Abnormalities: Abnormality in the genes, such as missing genes, extra genes, or defective genes

Phenylketonuria (PKU): Genetic disease in which the child lacks an important enzyme.  Allows phenylpyruvic acid to accumulate in the body, If untreated, severe retardation may occur by age 3. Routine medical tests at birth can detect PKU

Treat with phenylalanine-free diet (found, for example, in Aspartame, known as Nutrasweet)

 

Microcephaly: Head and brain are abnormally small; brain is forced to develop in a limited space

 

Hydrocephaly: Buildup of cerebrospinal fluid within the ventricles (brain cavities); pressure can enlarge the head and damage the brain

 

Cretinism: Stunted growth and retardation caused by insufficient supply of thyroid hormone

May also be caused by lack of iodine

Easily detected in infancy

 

Down Syndrome: Genetic disorder caused by presence of extra chromosome (usually on the 21st pair; trisomy 21); results in mental retardation and shorter life span

Does not run in the family

Older a woman is, greater the risk to produce a Down’s child

Older fathers also contribute (about 25% of the time)

No cure, but is detectable before birth

 

Fragile X Syndrome: Genetic form of retardation caused by defect in X chromosome

Runs in families

Sex-linked; mainly affects boys

Most suffer from hyperactivity and attention disorders

Become more severely retarded as adults

 

Heredity and Environment and IQ 

Reaction Range Model of IQ states heredity sets the upper limits of IQ.

With proper environmental factors a child will be able to reach and maintain the upper  IQ limit  set by heredity.                                                            

Without the proper environmental factors a child will not maintain the promised upper limit of  IQ level possible at birth and IQ may decline.

 

Many researchers believe that intelligence is a combination of heredity (genes) and environment (upbringing).