One of ten pages from Craig Marion's Software Design Smorgasbord. The others are:
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HCI is short for Human-Computer Interaction. It's also referred to as CHI, Computer-Human Interaction; the two are terms are effectively interchangeable. HCI is the academic discipline that studies how people interact with computers. It builds on and complements parts of two other academic disciplines:
Experience Design (XD) is a much newer discipline. It focuses on designing software and websites (and other things) with a focus on the quality of the user experience. In a sense, it's an adjunct to HCI. |
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| search engine by freefind |
| Especially Recommended | |
| ACM SigChi Home Page | ACM (Association for Computing Machinery) SIGCHI (Special Interest Group on Computer Human Interaction) "brings together people working on the design, evaluation, implementation, and study of interactive computing systems for human use." Interactions is their excellent bi-monthly magazine for designers of interactive products. The SIGCHI bulletin also contains valuable information. Their bibliography is huge. (Posted 5/97, Link updated 1/05) |
| Interaction Design Association | "A member-supported organization committed to serving the needs of the international interaction design community" (Posted 11/04, last updated 11/08) |
| Interaction-Design.Org | "Interaction-Design.org is all about making research accessible. We deal with human-centered aspects of technology: Interaction Design, User Experience (UX), Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), Information Architecture (IA), Human Factors, Usability, and related fields." The site has four sections: an Open Content, peer-reviewed Encyclopedia, a huge conference calendar, a comprehensive bibliography, and "misDesigns," - short examples of defective designs tied to research themes. (Posted 11/09) |
| AIGA | "AIGA, the professional association for design, stimulates thinking about design, demonstrates the value of design and empowers the success of designers at each stage of their careers. . . Founded in 1914, AIGA remains the oldest and largest professional membership organization for design." These are the professional resources. (Posted 2/00, Updated 3/10) |
| Other Selected Sources | |
| All About UX | Information about user experience (UX) from the UX community. The site is created and maintained by volunteers. This is their blog. Via InfoDesign. (Posted 3/11) |
| UXnet | "UXnet creates effective, functional, and strategic networks to enable cross-disciplinary collaboration between user experience professionals. We connect people, organizations, resources, and ideas to enable the growth and maturation of User Experience as a practice, a community, and eventually a discipline." Via InfoDesign. (Posted 12/07, Updated 3/10) |
| UX Week 2011 |
August 23-26, 2011. San Francisco.
"The premier user experience conference." (Posted 5/11) |
| MobileHCI 2011 |
August 30 - September 2, 2011. Stockholm.
This is the program. (Posted 7/11) |
| Interact 2011 |
September 5-9, 2011. Lisbon, Portugal.
The theme of the INTERACT 2011 conference, Building Bridges, recognizes the interdisciplinary and intercultural spirit of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) research. The conference welcomes research that bridges disciplines, cultures and societies. (Posted 5/11) |
| Interaction 12 |
February 1-4, 2012. Dublin.
From the Interaction Design Association. (Posted 7/11) |
| CHI 2012 |
May 5-10, 2012. Austin.
The "CHI 2012 focus on the centrality of experience-from the models, theories and practical insights we need to understand and design for user experience to the irreplaceable value of experiencing innovation in our field through hands-on interactivity." (Posted 7/11) |
| Conference Calendar | From Interaction-Design.Org. The most comprehensive listing of current and previous conferences of which I'm aware. (Posted 11/09) |
| BayCHI Calendar of Events | Large compendium of HCI-related events, worldwide. (Posted 7/98) |
| Previous Conference Sites Still of Interest | |
| CHI 2011 |
May 7-12, 2011. Vancouver, British Columbia.
"The ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems is the premier international conference of human-computer interaction. CHI 2011 focuses on leveraging our diversity and connecting people, cultures, technologies, experiences, and ideas. " (Posted 11/10) |
| Mobile HCI 2010 |
September 7-10, 2010. Lisbon, Portugal.
"A forum for academics and practitioners to discuss the challenges and potential solutions for effective interaction with mobile devices and services. It covers the design, evaluation and application of techniques and approaches for all mobile and wearable computing devices and services." (Posted 3/10) |
| UX Week 2010 |
August 24-27, 2010. San Francisco.
"The premier user experience conference where we look laterally at the disciplines that influence us." from Adaptive Path. (Posted 3/10) |
| Gel 2010 |
April 29-30, 2010. New York City.
"Short for "Good Experience Live", Gel is a conference, and community, exploring good experience in all its forms -- in business, technology, art, society, and life." These are links to past Gel conferences. (Posted 3/10) |
| CHI 2010 |
April 10-15, 2010. Atlanta.
"The premier international conference for the field of human-computer interaction." (Posted 3/10) |
| SXSW Interactive Conference |
March 17-21, 2010. Austin.
"SXSW Interactive features five days of compelling presentations from the brightest minds in emerging technology, scores of exciting networking events hosted by industry leaders and an unbeatable line up of special programs showcasing the best new websites, video games and startup ideas the community has to offer." These are the sessions. (Posted 3/10) |
| Interaction 10 |
February 4-7, 2010. Savannah, Georgia.
"Every year, the interaction design community gathers to stretch our minds, sharpen our skills and inspire each other." This is the program. (Posted 3/10) |
| IDEA2009 |
Sept. 15-16, 2009. Toronto.
IDEA2009 explores the convergence of Experience Design with Social and User Experiences. (Posted 5/09) |
| Mobile HCI 2009 |
September 15-18, 2009. Bonn, Germany.
"A forum for academics and practitioners to discuss the challenges and potential solutions for effective interaction with mobile systems and services. It covers the design, evaluation and application of techniques and approaches for all mobile and wearable computing devices and services." (Posted 5/09) |
| UX Week |
September 15-18, 2009. San Francisco.
Presentations from the 2008 conference are on the home page. (Posted 11/08) |
| From Business to Buttons |
June 11-12, 2009. Malmo, Sweden.
Conference focusing on experience design with an emphasis on how to bridge the gap between the business goals and the product in use. These are the sessions. (Posted 5/09) |
| Gel 2009 |
April 30-May 1, 2009. NYC.
"Gel ("Good Experience Live") is a conference and community exploring good experience in all its forms -- in business, art, society, technology, and life." Videos of many presentations from the 2005 and 2006 conferences are available. (Posted 3/09) |
| CHI 2009 |
April 5-9, 2009. Boston.
"CHI 2009 will be the showcase for the technologies, designs and ideas that will form the new world of digital life." These are links to past CHI conferences. (Posted 7/08) |
| Interaction 09 |
February 5-9, 2009. Vancouver.
"Join several hundred Interaction Designers from around the world as we address the design of interactive systems of all types: applications (web and desktop), mobile, consumer electronics, digitally enhanced environments, and more." (Posted 9/08) |
| Web 2.0 Summit |
November 5-7, 2008. San Francisco.
"It strikes us that the Web might teach us new ways to address these limits. From harnessing collective intelligence to a bias toward open systems, the Web's greatest inventions are, at their core, social movements. To that end, we're expanding our program this year to include leaders in the fields of healthcare, genetics, finance, global business, and yes, even politics." (Posted 5/08) |
| User Intelligence | A user experience consultancy operating in northern Europe. Excellent case studies and an interesting blog. (Posted 5/11) |
| Especially Recommended | |
| Stanford HCI Group | These are the academic offerings. But see especially the publications. (Posted 10/05) |
| Other Selected Sources | |
| University Programs in HCI | From the Guide to Usability for Software Engineers at the University of Maryland. A very recent compilation by grad students. Created as part of a course on Usability Engineering by Ben Schneiderman. (Posted 12/98) |
| Human Interface Technology Lab |
University of Washington.
Very interesting site. Check out the Corsortium. "The Virtual Worlds Consortium is a guiding force at the HIT lab." (Posted 5/97) |
| Human Computer Interaction Lab |
University of Maryland.
Ben Schneiderman is head of this department. He's a long-established authority on CHI and User Interface Design. (Posted 5/97) |
| Especially Recommended | |
| User Experience Deliverables | By Peter Morville. "Twenty user experience deliverables with links to relevant resources and examples." Very useful. (Posted 3/09) |
| 50 Most Usable RIAs | by Theresa Neil. Theresa is co-author, with Bill scott, of the book Designing Web Interfaces: Principles and Patterns for Rich Interaction. The article illustrates 50 Rich Interaction Applications and explains why each was selected. (Posted 11/09, Link Updated 3/10) |
| Better User Experience with Storytelling | By Francisco Inchauste. "In this article we’ll explore how user experience professionals and designers are using storytelling to create compelling experiences that build human connections" ("connect with real people, not just computers"). This is part 2. Via elearningpost. (Posted 3/10) |
| Papers by Jodi Forlizzi | From Jodi Forlizzi Interaction Design. (Posted 7/10) |
| Other Selected Sources | |
| articles from LOOP | Articles from the AIGA Journal of Interaction Design Education. (Posted 8/02, Updated 1/05) |
| What Is Interaction Design and What Does It Mean to Information Designers? | By Craig Marion. Part one of a two-part article presents the origins and meaning or interaction design and then focuses on what interaction designers do for projects. It contains links to many examples of interaction design and lays the groundwork for the second part of the article, Make Way for Interactive Assistance, which presents a typology of the ways interactivity can contribute to user assistance. (Posted 5/99) |
| HCI, the Arts and the Humanities | 19 papers on semiotics, drama and the performing arts, literary techniques, improvisation and creativity, seeing differently, and analysing experience of digital technology. From a workshep held at the University of York, July 21, 2003. Via InfoDesign. (Posted 8/03) |
| Interaction Design: The Guru Speaks | An interview with Alan Cooper by John S. Rhodes. Alan discusses the principles of good software design -- which are completely congruent with what I'm calling Performance-Centered Design on this site -- plus his role in the development of Visual Basic and its significance, and his take on what's happening in the Web world. (Posted 4/99) |
| Interaction Spaces for 21st Century Computing | By Terry Winograd. "Describes a conceptual framework for the development of a new an architecture that is oriented towards integrated interaction spaces." Via Infodesign. (Posted 11/01) |
| From Computing Machinery to Interaction Design | by Terry Winograd. "Human-computer interaction is by necessity a field with interdisciplinary concerns. . . In the midst of this interdisciplinary collision, we can see the beginnings of a new profession, which might be called 'interaction design.' Although computers are at the center of interaction design, it is not a subfield of computer science." Originally published in Peter Denning and Robert Metcalfe (eds.), Beyond Calculation: The Next Fifty Years of Computing, Springer-Verlag, 1997, 149-162. (Posted 5/99) |
| Recent Talks | by Brenda Laurel. See especially The Ethos of Computing, a 1997 presentation on how the stories we tell about computers and technology influence what they are becoming, and some stories we might use to shape the future. (Posted 4/00) |
| Go With The Flow | By John Geirland. Wired magazine, Sept. 1996. "According to Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, great Web sites are not about navigating content, but staging experience." (Posted 8/98, Link Updated 6/99) |
| HCIL Papers and Technical Reports | 135 online papers from the Human-Computer Interaction Lab of the University of Maryland. (Posted 5/98, Link Updated 6/99) |
| Especially Recommended | |
| UXmatters | A volunteer-driven Web magazine with a focus on designing digital-product user experiences that optimally serve people’s needs and satisfy their desires. These are the Articles by Topic and these are the issues. The magazine has an especially strong group of contributors. (Posted 12/05, Updated 8/10) |
| UX Magazine | UX Magazine sets out to explore, promote & discuss the multiple facets of user experience one article at a time. It is built upon the foundations of ProjectNeo, a global interactive design community. Via InfoDesign. (Posted 3/06) |
| Johnny Holland | "Johnny Holland is an open collective exploring the interactions of experience design" (Posted 1/10) |
| User Experience | Magazine published quarterly by the Usability Professionals Association. (Posted 5/09) |
| Interactions |
A publication of ACM SIGCHI. PDF versions of articles are available online to SIGCHI members. A digital edition is now available as well. (Posted 5/97, Updated 3/08) |
| SIGCHI Bulletin | Site where "You not only can read about the latest developments at SIGCHI you can participate in those developments via discussions, letters to the editor, and your own articles. Likewise, articles can be read on line, printed out or sent via e-mail." An excellent resource. (Posted 6/99, updated 7/04) |
| Other Selected Sources | |
| Loop, the AIGA Journal of Interaction Design Education | "Loop is an on-line journal concerned with the nexus of issues surrounding practice, education and research in interactive media design. The journal focuses on the pressing issues surrounding the reconstitution of design education as it confronts the emerging world of computer-mediated artifacts and communication." At this writing, issue 6, focusing on archiving experience design, is displayed. Issues 1-5 are also available. AIGA is the American Institute of Graphic Arts. (Posted 6/03) |
| Moving WebWord | An internet usability/human factors column by by John S. Rhodes. Many excellent articles. See especially Web Usability Bill of Rights and also the The Hidden Truth About Web Content, where John argues that content isn't simply a matter of words: it's a matter of interactivity. John's interviews are also very good. Some of my favorites are Interaction Design: The Guru Speaks (Alan Cooper) and The Intersection of Information Architecture and Usability (Alison J. Head). (Posted 2/99, Updated 7/01) |
| HCI Vistas | "HCI Vistas is an Indian e-publication, where the budding interaction designers and usability engineers are encouraged to write and publish short articles. It is a formal medium for them to share their original insights and experiences acquired during professional practice." (Posted 10/07) |
| Human Factors International Newsletters | Past issues of their monthly e-newsletter are accessible online. From Human Factors International. (Posted 10/00, Link updated 7/06) |
| Especially Recommended | |
| Podcasts of BayCHI Events | Audio and slides from BayCHI presentations. Listen to, and sometimes view, Bill Scott's "Designing for Ajax," Jenson Harris' "Beyond Menus and Toolbars in Microsoft Office," and many other timely topics. (Posted 2/05, Updated 1/07) |
| IA Summit Presentations | From the summit held in Memphis, TN from March 20-22, 2009. These are presentations from day 1 and day 2. (Posted 5/09) |
| Designing Rich Applications | By Theresa Neil. Presentation given on Aug. 6, 2009 at DELVE NYC- a 2 Day Masterclass on Designing User Interfaces. It complements the book Designing Web Interfaces: Principles and Patterns for Rich Interaction by Theresa and Bill Scott. It addresses structuring applications for richness, using standard screen patterns, and selecting the best UI controls. (Posted 11/09) |
| Seminar on Cognitive Modeling for UI Design | Audio files and supporting materials from a seminar on "the current state of the art of evaluating user interface designs using models of human performance that are based on cognitive architectures" presented February 28 - March 2, 2005 by David E. Kieras, Professor in the Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department at the University of Michigan, whose current research focuses on developing the theory, techniques, and tools for analyzing and evaluating usability in HCI, and on the EPIC advance cognitive architecture for human performance modeling. Via InfoDesign. (Posted 7/05) |
| The History-and Evolution of User Experience Design | An interview with Peter Merholz, president and co-founder of Adaptive Path. Via InfoDesign. (Posted 5/09) |
| Garrett's State of the User Experience | Jesse James Garrett gives a State of the User Experience Address. 40 minutes. (Posted 11/09) |
| 25 User Experience Videos that are Worth Your Time | From Smashing Magazine. "We have focused on current content but have included some older videos that are still relevant. It will take you more than 16 hours to watch all of these videos." Via elearningpost. (Posted 9/10) |
| UXpod - User Experience Podcast | User Experience Discussions with Gerry Gaffney. From Information & Design, is a usability consultancy based in Melbourne, Australia. Earlier podcasts are available here. (Posted 10/06, Updated 7/10) |
| Building Documentation into the Interface | by Whitney Quesenbery. PowerPoint slides presenting an excellent intoduction to how principles of cognitive psychology apply to UI Design. Presented at the 45th STC Conference in May, 1998. (Posted 7/98, Updated 10/06) |
| Getting People to Talk: An Ethnography & Interviewing Primer | By Gabriel Biller & Kristy Scovel. "In the spring of 2008, we talked to professors, experts, and students about this philosophical orientation and how to actually get people to talk." A 33-minute video. Via E-Learning Post. (Posted 9/08) |
| What is Interactivity anyway? and New Methods for Experience Design | By Nathan Shedroff. Interesting presentations. The first one has lots of examples from the web and links at the end to other valuable resources: articles and presentations, the Unified Field Theory of Design, and Nathan's Experience Design Resources. (Posted 2/99, Updated 1/05) |
| Other Selected Sources | |
| What Is Interaction Design? | By Dan Saffer, Adaptive Path. Basic introduction. Here are the slides and this is a summary of what he covers. (Posted 10/06) |
| Magic Ink | Information Software and the Graphical Interface. By Bret Victor. In this paper, I suggest that the long-standing focus on "interaction" may be misguided. For a majority subset of software, called "information software," I argue that interactivity is actually a curse for users and a crutch for designers, and users' goals can be better satisfied through other means" Via InfoDesign. (Posted 1/08) |
| The Frontiers of User Experience | By Jeffrey Vreen. Playful, free-form, presentation on design issues. Lots of interesting visuals. (Posted 9/04) |
| Especially Recommended | |
| Patterns in Interaction Design | The strongest collections are Web Design Patterns and GUI Design patterns. Also a collection of MobileUI Design Patterns and a small collection of literature and links . These visual patterns, showing a variety of approaches to design, are VERY useful. By Martijn van Welie. (Posted 4/02; Updated 1/05) |
| Design at IBM | Major categories are design, design gallery, and resources. (Posted 9/98, Updated 7/10) |
| User Experience Design Resources | Excellent collection of resources (though not annotated). Articles and papers available as well. (Posted 1/05, Updated 6/07) |
| userexperiencenetwork | "News, events and other items of interest about user experience as an umbrella concept for collaboration and cooperation." (Posted 5/05) |
| Food UX | "Gastronomic Inspiration for UX Designers." A "collection of inspirational web gems for user experience designers from the gastronomic and culinary arts." (Posted 1/11) |
| A User Experience Deliverable & Wireframe System | "At EightShapes, we use this system to produce all sorts of stuff: flows, storyboards, plans, strategy, analysis, maps, reports, style guides, annotated and clickable screens (as SWF or PDF), & more." (Posted 5/10) |
| HCI Bibliography | 29,000 searchable records. Also many links grouped under the headings Learn About HCI, HCI Columns and News, and Developer Resources (Posted 9/98, Updated 1/05) |
| UX Zeitgeist | "Important books and topics on user experience design, according to the UX community." (Posted 7/08) |
| Keith Instone.org | Keith Instone's collection of his most recent works. Look at the links at the bottom of the page. (Posted 9/04, Link Updated 3/10) |
| Basement.org | Richard Ziade's blog. "Basement.org is a reflection of my own professional interests and curiosity: the importance of good experience design; delivering richer experiences over the Web; the untapped potential of RSS and feed syndication; and how technology trends affect our personal and professional lives." (Posted 11/07) |
| User Experience. UX Design | "The purpose of uxdesign.com is to contribute to and support the professional user experience (UX, UE) design, interaction design, and business strategy communities, to help us design interactive systems that improve people's lives." (Posted 11/09) |
| experience design and information architecture resources | Very good single page compilation of resources. Some interesting original work, such as this diagram of the elements of user experience and this summary of what an information architect does. By Jesse James Garrett. Via elegant hack. (Posted 3/01) |
| odannyboy | By Danny Saffer, Danny maintains a blog and has a robust portolio. There are a number of useful links in his course on Visual Interface Design, which is "not even primarily about visual interface. It’s about interface and interaction design: how the features and functions of a product get translated into something humans find usable, useful, and desirable." (Posted 6/03, Updated 1/05) |
| Nooface | "The purpose of this site is to support the exchange of ideas about next-generation user interfaces, focusing on approaches that go beyond the WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointing Device) method on which most current user interfaces are based. The goal is to promote out-of-the-box thinking on how user interfaces might evolve to accommodate new classes of users and devices outside of the traditional PC domain." (Posted 10/01) |
| HCI Resource Network | Well modularized and well organized. (Posted 5/98, Updated 10/99) |
| Putting People First | "Daily insights on experience design, user experience, and innovation." From Experientia, "an international experience design consultancy helping companies and organisations to innovate their products, services and processes by creating valuable user experiences." (Posted 10/06) |
| Other Selected Sources | |
| User Experience Design Resources | Excellent collection by Dey Alexander, especially strong on accessibility. See also Dey's publications. (Posted 5/10) |
| Canadian User Experience Blog | Site for the user experience community in Canada. Interesting posts including a few presentations. (Posted 11/07, Link Updated 3/10) |
| Interaction Design Patterns Page | More sweeping in scope than Patterns in Interaction Design, this collection by Tom Erickson is essentially a collection of papers on patterns and pattern languages. There's also a listing of pattern-related events at the top. (Posted 4/02, Link Updated 3/10) |
| Good Experience | "Our mission is to encourage the creation of good, meaningful experiences in business and life." By Mark Hurst. (Posted 10/98, Revised 4/06) |
| The Interaction Designer's Coffee Break | "Daily posting and quarterly articles about interaction design." Postings are grouped by category at the bottom. By Henrik Olsen, an interaction designer living in Århus, Denmark. (Posted 5/02) |
| Bad Human Factors Designs | By Michael J. Darnell. Start with the table of contents. (Posted 12/02) |
| Especially Recommended | |
| Archives of CHI-WEB@ACM.ORG | A goldmine of insights and observations on CHI/UI Design/Usability Issues. The list-serv is available for subscription, too, if you prefer. (Posted 4/99) |
| UX Design Patterns | A simple, HTML-based list of over 50 design patterns in Quince. (Posted 1/10) |
| Other Selected Sources | |
| The Interaction Museum | "The Interaction Museum is an on-line resource aimed at HCI practitioners, teachers and researchers that will collect a wide variety of interaction techniques and systems and make them available to the HCI community." Via InfoDesign. (Posted 5/08) |
| User Experience Pioneers | "Interviews with the people responsible for creating the UX discipline." Collected by Tamara Adlin. Via InfoDesign. (Posted 6/07) |
| Processing Open Source Programming Language | "Processing is an open source programming language and environment for people who want to program images, animation, and interactions. It is used by students, artists, designers, researchers, and hobbyists for learning, prototyping, and production. It is created to teach fundamentals of computer programming within a visual context and to serve as a software sketchbook and professional production tool. Processing is developed by artists and designers as an alternative to proprietary software tools in the same domain." (Posted 12/07) |
| Colorblind Web Page Filter | A tool showing how the URL you select looks through several filters that replicate different types of colorblindness. Via LucDesk. (Posted 2/03) |
| UX Methods Card Game | The cards briefly describe 16 different methods, deliverables, and ideas that user experience professionals can use in their practice. Additional descriptions and some additional resources are on this page. Via InfoDesign. (Posted 5/07) |
| INTERACTION-DESIGN.ORG | "A free, open-content, peer-reviewed Encyclopedia covering terms from the disciplines of Interaction Design, Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), Design, Human Factors, Usability, Information Architecture, and related fields." The site also contains a calendar of events. (Posted 12/05) |
| Celebrities in Cognitive Science | A list of 46 of them, by Martin Ryder of the from the School of Education of the University of Colorado at Denver. (Posted 12/98, Updated 9/03) |
| Especially Recommended | |
| Suggested Readings in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), User Interface (UI) Development, & Human Factors (HF) | Excellent list by Gary Perlman. Briefly annotated. Displays thumbnails of book covers. Links to Amazon.com and, sometimes, online resources. (Posted 4/99, updated 1/02) |
| HCI Bibliography | Searchable. As of May, 1999, it contained 19,500 entries. (Posted 5/97, revised 6/99) |
| Garrett, J. 2002. The Elements of User Experience: User-Centered Design for the Web. New Riders. See also Jesse's information architecture resources. (Posted 11/02, Updated 12/02) | |
| Laurel, B., ed., 1990. The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. (Posted 5/97) | |
| Moggridge, B. 2006. Designing Interactions. MIT Press. (Posted 10/07) | |
| Preece, J., Rogers, Y., and Sharp, H. 2002. Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction. John Wiley. Three chapters, including What is interaction design and The process of interaction design are available at on the publisher's site, and a companion site contains a great deal of information, including powerpoint slides of lectures for each chapter. (Posted 6/03) | |
| Raskin, J., 2000. The Humane Interface. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. (Posted 7/00) | |
| Saffer. D. 2007. Designing for Interaction: Creating Smart Applications and Clever Devices. New Riders. (Posted 10/06) | |
| Winograd, T., ed., 1996. Bringing Design to Software. NY: ACM Press. Many of the essays are available online here. (Posted 9/97, Updated 12/02) | |