Introduction
Block 49 in site 42SL98 in Salt Lake City, Utah, was excavated in the summer of 1986 by the Office of Public Archaeology, under the direction of Asa Nielsen and Donald Southworth. Block 49, located on 300 South and 100 West (see fig 1), was an early Mormon pioneer cemetery, probably in use between 1847 and 1856. Various structures, including housing and a slaughterhouse, were subsequently built over the abandoned and unmarked cemetery. The site, especially the upper fill, was highly disturbed by recent historic building processes.
Block 49 is thought to be the burial ground for the city proposed by Charles Rich, who led the second group of pioneers into the Salt Lake valley in the fall of 1847 (his mother, Nancy O’Neal Rich, was buried in Block 49 with several of his infant children) (Tigner-Wise1989). This site is historically significant because it was the original cemetery built in the Salt Lake valley, by the first company of pioneers to leave Winter Quarters. The first company included Albert Carrington and Lorenzo D. Young and his wife who was probably seven months pregnant (Tigner-Wise 1989). Their children were buried in the Block 49 cemetery.
Methods
The ceramic sherds from Block 49 were sorted using Berge (1980), Berge research notes, and the Museum of Peoples and Cultures comparative collection. The sherds, totaling 376 artifacts, were then compared macroscopically and categorized according to composition, in four main categories: earthenware, whiteware, stoneware, and porcelain. Whiteware was additionally sorted using Wetherbee 1980, Cushion 1959, and Lehner 1988.
Results
There were 376 sherds in total recovered from the site. Of the total, 69.15% (two hundred sixty sherds) were whiteware (see fig. 8). Earthenware accounted for 21.54% (eighty-one sherds), porcelain for 8.78% (thirty-three sherds), and stoneware for .53% (two sherds).
Earthenware
Earthenware is a low-temperature fired, porous and often clay-based pottery. It requires a glaze for culinary uses. Earthenware is divided into soft-paste and hard-paste. Soft-paste is very porous and usually rough textured on the broken edge. It may or may not be glazed. Hard-paste is slightly absorbent, very hard and well-fired, and may not require a glaze.
A. Soft-paste
1. Redware: The clay in redware is the same as that used in red bricks. It is highly porous. Redware is the earliest type of American pottery, and has been produced since 1725. It was used mostly for utilitarian items. Redware must be glazed for use in connection with food.
Block 49 redware: Most of the redware, fifteen sherds, was found in feature 4, the lower fill. Four sherds were found in the historic post remains in feature 24, two from general surface collection, and one with no provenience. 22 sherds total (see table 1). Only one sherd, found in the lower fill, was glazed. There were two rim sherds recovered, one from the lower fill and one from general surface collection. All were undiagnostic.
2. Buffware: This ware is porous, of a buff or cream-colored body, sometimes clear glazed. It is rougher than creamware, which is of a finer consistency. Buffware was generally used as both utilitarian and dinner ware. It was produced in America since 1825 (Berge 1980).
Block 49 buffware: one sherd was found in the upper fill, feature 3, and one rim sherd in the lower fill. Two sherds total (see table 1).
B. Hard-paste
1. Yellowware: The paste is buff colored, and the glaze is clear which when fired becomes yellow. Yellowware is a transition type between redware and creamware and is used only for utilitarian objects (Berge 1980). Yellowware was produced in America since 1830.
Block 49 yellowware: Four sherds were found in the lower fill, one in the historic plow zone, one in the unknown feature (feature 42), and one from general surface collection. Three sherds had no datum recorded, and one was unprovenienced. Eleven sherds total (see table 1). Of the four sherds in the lower fill, one was a rim. The sherds in the plow zone and unknown feature were both rim sherds. All rims were undiagnostic.
2. Brownware: Brownware includes paste colors ranging from red to cream, with a dark brown glaze on interior and exterior walls. Brown glaze on exterior wall only is not considered brownware; it is included in redware. Brownware was mainly used for ornamental objects, not for dinner services, and has been produced in America since the 1830s.
Block 49 brownware: nineteen sherds were found in the lower fill, one sherd in infant burial (feature 9), one in historic plow zone, one in the sterile sandy deposits (feature 15), ten in general surface collection, eight no datum recorded, and two unprovenienced. Forty-two sherds total (see table 1). Two rims were found in the general surface collection, and four in the lower fill. One handle was found in the general surface, but it was not diagnostic. One of the unprovenienced sherds was a mug with an intact base. An intact small jar lid was found in the lower fill.
3. Greyware: Early grayware is confined to heavy, plain, utilitarian vessels, for use in the cellar, buttery, and dairy, not the kitchen and never the parlor (Berge 1980:189). It is fired at higher temperatures than most earthenware, and is made of finer and denser clay. The paste color is usually grey. Greyware has been produced in America since 1750.
Block 49 greyware: one sherd was found in the lower fill, one in the sterile sandy deposits, and one no datum recorded. Three sherds total (see table 1).
C. Unknown: One sherd was found in infant burial (feature 6) that could not be sorted into any of the above categories.
Whiteware
Whiteware is stoneware with a white or cream-colored paste. In this analysis, whiteware will be considered as a separate category than stoneware, which will be defined later.
A. Creamware: Pottery with a cream colored body has been produced since the early eighteenth century (Berge 1980:203). Most creamware in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries came from England.
Block 49 creamware: one sherd was found in the upper fill, two in the lower fill, and one sherd no datum recorded. Four sherds total (see table 1). The sherd in the upper fill was part of a handle.
B. Pearlware (Bluish paste): Pearlware is a whiteware (sometimes an ironstone) with a blue tinge to the paste from cobalt, visible on broken edges, or a bluish glaze. It is always glazed. Pearlware was invented by Josiah Wedgwood in 1779.
Block 49 pearlware: two sherds were found in the lower fill (see table 1).
D. Ironstone: Also called stone china, ironstone is a utilitarian ware, heavy, dense, and strong. It has a white body and clear glaze. In this analysis, only sherds with a manufacturer’s mark were considered ironstone. All others are considered whiteware plain.
Block 49 ironstone: two sherds were found in upper fill, four in lower fill, three from general surface collection, and three no datum recorded. Eleven sherds total (see table 1). The sherds from the upper fill were rims.
Remarks: Of the identifiable manufacturer’s marks, four were J & G Meakin, a British company, now part of the Wedgwood group, that opened in 1851 (Cushion 1959:162). The seal was a lion and a unicorn, with the motto “Honi soit qui mal y pense”, followed by “Dieu et mon droit.” The word “England” was added in 1891 (Cushion 1959:162). One sherd had a nearly complete mark that had “England” clearly written at the bottom. J & G Meakin sherds compose 50% of the identifiable manufacturer’s marks (fig 5). One sherd showed the untrademarked eagle seal of Knowles Taylor and Knowles, an Ohio company which opened in 1820. It began manufacturing ironstone in 1873, and used the eagle mark specifically for ironstone (Berge 1980:213). The eagle seal was trademarked in 1879, which dates sherd 433.7 to between 1873 and 1879.
I was unable to find the manufacturer “Kaiserin Limoges” (fig 2). There was an American Limoges company in Sebring Ohio from 1900 to 1955, when it bankrupted (Lehner 1988:262). “Kaiserin” was not among their marks. All other pottery bearing the name “Limoges” in its mark is from Limoges, France. Sherd 245.10 is from the Adamant Hotel, and an English manufacturer (possibly John Hancock & Sons).
J. Transferware: A whiteware with a transfer-printed design or pattern printed either over or under the glaze. All transferware at Block 49 was underglaze. Overglaze colors include black, cobalt blue, brown, and pink were manufactured before 1800. Blue was the preferred color throughout the nineteenth century, based on the large quantity from 1810 onwards (Berge 1980:195). Orange and mulberry were in use before 1830, and green was added to the palette after 1830.
Block 49 transferware: Two sherds were found in the upper fill, eleven in the lower fill, one in the infant burial at feature 6, three in historic plow zone, two in sterile sandy deposits, one from general surface collection, one no datum recorded, and four unprovenienced. Twenty-five sherds total (see table 1).
Remarks: (see table 2): 60 % of the transferware at Block 49 was blueprint, and an additional 20% was flown blue (also called flow blue), made by adding a volatizing mixture during the glaze firing, giving the pattern a soft and blurred appearance. One sherd was black, one green, one purple, and two red. The blueprints were found mostly in the lower fill, also in the upper fill, the previously mentioned infant burial, the plow zone, the sterile deposits, general surface, and unprovenienced. The blackprint came from the historical plow zone. The greenprint was unprovenienced. The purpleprint had no datum recorded. Both redprint sherds came from the upper and lower fills. 44 % of the total transferware came from the lower fill. All transferware at Block 49 could have been produced before 1846.
O. Peasantware: From 1810 onward, a “boldly painted whiteware” (Berge 1980:201) was produced for the working class as dinner services and other kitchen items. It was painted with bright enamels, usually in stripes and flowers or other simple designs. They have the appearance of English folk art.
Block 49 peasantware: three sherds from the upper fill, seven from the lower, one from the historic plow zone, two from the sterile sandy deposits, one from general surface collection, six no datum recorded, and two unprovenienced. Twenty-two sherds total (see table 1). One rim sherd was recovered from the upper fill, one no datum recorded, and one unprovenienced. One of the unprovenienced sherds was a handle. In the upper fill, a gilded pipe stem was also found.
Remarks: Many of the sherds are of a pattern of orange stripes on the exterior walls and various colored flowers on the interior (Pattern A), with gilt accents. They are of various shapes, and may well have belonged to a set of dinnerware. 75% of the sherds painted in Pattern A had no datum recorded.
S. Whiteware plain: In this analysis, whiteware plain is defined as any whiteware with no decorative colors printed or painted, and no manufacturer’s mark. Whiteware plain includes relief designs. Whiteware was produced in America since the early eighteenth century. It was used for everything from utilitarian items to ornate dinner and tea services, as its paste can range from very thick and heavy to paper-thin, although the very thin wares are unusual. Most whiteware is of medium to heavy weight.
Block 49 whiteware plain: five sherds were found in the upper fill, ninety in the lower fill, one in infant burial (feature 10), thirty-eight in the historic plow zone, nine in the sterile sandy deposits, seven in the post remains, eleven from general surface collection, thirty no datum recorded, and five unprovenienced. One hundred ninety-six sherds total (see table 1). Of the sherds in the lower fill, twelve were rims, three of them identifiable as plates or saucers. Two rims were found in the upper fill, five in the plow zone, three in the sandy deposits, one in the post remains, two from general surface collection, eight no datum recorded, and one unprovenienced. Two of these were diagnostic as mugs or teacups. One handle, possibly from a pitcher, was found in the upper fill. Five base sherds were found in the plow zone, two in the lower fill, one in the historic post remains, one from general surface collection, and one unprovenienced. A sherd with base and rim fragments was found in the sterile sand deposits, which clearly identifies it as a saucer. A teacup sherd with part of the base and handle intact was found in the lower fill.
Stoneware
Stoneware is fired at high temperatures, non-porous, and does not need a glaze to be used in connection with food consumption. It has little or no absorbency, compared to the very porous earthenware. Stoneware was used for tableware and utilitarian wares.
B. Salt glazed: Salt glaze is formed by putting salt either in the kiln chamber or into the fire (Berge research notes). It gives the vessel an orange-peel texture. Salt glazed wares are still produced in the Salt Lake valley, and have been since the beginning of this century due to the abundance of salt from the lake. Salt glazing prior to 1900 was not produced in America.
Block 49 salt glazed: one sherd was found in the lower fill (see table 1).
G. Agate: This ware is formed by folding together several different colors of paste and blending them until they have a marble appearance. When done with brown and cream pastes, it can look like wood. Agate ware was invented by Thomas Wedgwood around 1730, and was used mostly in decorative and household items, not in food services. Agate wear was no longer produced after about 1780.
Block 49 agate: one sherd was found in the general surface collection (see table 1).
Porcelain
Porcelain is different from pottery in that it is translucent. It is classified as china. Only china is translucent, and only pottery is entirely opaque. Porcelain was used for everything from dinnerwares to dolls to pipes, but rarely for utilitarian items. Porcelain, like pottery wares, is classified as hard-paste or soft-paste. The easiest test for hard-paste versus soft-paste porcelain is to hold the sherd at an angle to the light (Berge research notes). Hard porcelain glaze is dull and doesn’t reflect light. Scratching the paste (along a broken edge) will roughen the fingernail. A fracture of hard-paste will be glassy throughout. Soft-paste glaze and paste blend into a brightness. Where it is chipped, it feels rough and granular. The paste can be marked when scratched by a fingernail. The glaze on a soft-paste is clearly visible as a different layer on a broken edge. The only porcelain found at Block 49 was hard paste. Hard paste porcelain was not produced in America until after 1880 (Berge 1980).
Block 49 hard-paste porcelain: one sherd was found in the upper fill, fourteen in the lower fill, one in the possible headstone (feature 8), four in the historic plow zone, three in general surface, seven no datum recorded, and three unprovenienced. Thirty-three sherds total (see table 1). Three of the porcelain sherds, one general surface and two unprovenienced, were bases; two, one from the plow zone and one no datum were rims; and one from the lower fill was a lid. Among the artifacts found were two porcelain doll legs, not belonging to the same doll (95.1 and 87.19), and one porcelain doll hand (351.12). These doll parts would have been sewn in to a cloth body, with a porcelain molded head. Artifact 95.1 is from the upper fill, and 87.19 is unprovenienced. Artifact 351.12 was found in the historic plow zone.
Discussion
45.5 % of the total artifacts found came from the lower fill. 12.7 % came from the historic plow zone. 8.9 % came from the general surface collection. 3.9 % came from the sterile sandy deposits. 3.7 % of the total artifacts came from the upper fill (see fig 6). Earthenware made up 21.5 % of the total artifacts found. Whiteware totaled 69.1 %, stoneware .5 %, and porcelain 8.8 % (fig 7). Unfortunately the stratigraphy of the site had been compromised by the many settlements built on top of it, and the bulldozers who had begun to plow it just before excavation.
Whiteware was the most abundant ceramic in the site. This ware was the most affordable, as it was not imported but made in America, and sturdiest to transport as it was heavier ware and therefore less prone to breakage. It also served the most purposes, as it was not just special dinner china, but everyday dinnerware and was used for the kitchen, storage, buttery, etc. Porcelain was the least abundant in the site (since whiteware is technically a subcategory of stoneware, otherwise stoneware other than whiteware is the least abundant). It would have been more expensive, and less cost-efficient to transport, since it was more delicate, and less utilitarian than whiteware. Stonewares other than whiteware were very uncommon, since most of them had to be imported, and were not used in everyday wares.
I do not believe that the majority of these ceramics are contemporary with the cemetery. Housing had been built over the cemetery by 1870, and a slaughterhouse was built in the early twentieth century. The whiteware plain is undiagnostic of time, as it was very widely produced throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The doll parts could have been from the cemetery pioneers or later settlements, as they were produced throughout the nineteenth century and also could have been family heirlooms. The other wares give us an earliest probable date of the beginning third of the nineteenth century. The agate ware sherd was almost surely a family heirloom whether it belonged to one of the early pioneers or to a later settlement, since that ware was no longer produced after 1780.
Some pieces were quite obviously out of the range of use years for the pioneer cemetery, such as the ironstone with identifiable manufacturer’s marks. It is unlikely that the Adamant Hotel plate (artifact 245.10) was carried to the Salt Lake Valley with the Mormon pioneer companies that used the Block 49 cemetery, as most pioneers would not have been able to afford a stay in a hotel that had its own dinnerware sets. The English ironstone made by J & G Meakin also probably belonged to later settlement in the area, since the company was not founded until 1851, only five years before the last burial in the cemetery. The Knowles Taylor and Knowles ironstone is also too late to have been owned by one of the pioneers who used the Block 49 cemetery, as it was not produced until the 1870s, and the pioneer cemetery was no longer used after 1856.
Some of the ceramics may have been contemporary with the cemetery and the early pioneers, such as some of the whiteware plain. All of the transferware could have been produced early enough to have belonged to the early pioneers, as could the porcelain and peasantware. However, since the only artifacts recovered from the graves were a few pins (no buttons, buckles, or clothing remnants) (Tigner-Wise 1989) it is unlikely that they were buried with any ceramic artifacts. Only four sherds were found in the graves, all of them in infant burials (two in feature 6, one each in features 9 and 10). It is unlikely that these were grave goods. Most of the ceramics came from the lower fill and the historic plow zone, so it is most likely that the artifacts are from later settlements and not from the early pioneers who used the cemetery at Block 49.
Figure 5
Identifiable manufacturer’s marks
87.14
J&G Meakin, lion and unicorn
95.6
Kaiserin Limoges
95.12
J&G Meakin England (added after 1891), lion and unicorn
211.1
J&G Meakin
245.10
John . . . . ock & S
England
Adamant Hotel W
245.8 & 245.11 (fit together)
J&G Meakin, lion and unicorn
433.7
Knowles Taylor and Knowles, eagle mark, untrademarked (1872-1879)
Figure 6
Percentage of total artifacts in each feature.
F3: upper fill
F4: lower fill
F6: infant burial
F8: possible headstone
F9: infant burial
F10: infant burial
F14: historic plow zone
F15: sterile sandy deposits
F17/24: possible historic post remains
F42: unknown feature
GS: general surface
N/D: no datum recorded
UNPROV: no provenience
Figure 7
Percentage of total artifacts by wares
RED: redware
BUFF: buffware
YLW: yellowware
BRN: brownware
GREY: greyware
UNKN: unknown earthenware
CRM: creamware
PRL: pearlware
IRON: ironstone
TNSF: transferware
PSNT: peasantware
WHT: whiteware
SALT: salt glazed stoneware
MRBL: marble stoneware
PRCL: porcelain
Bibliography
Berge, Dale L.. Simpson Springs Station: Historical Archaeology in Western Utah. Cultural Resource Series No. 6, BLM, Salt Lake City, 1980.
Berge, Dale L. Research notes, unpublished.
Cushion, J.P. Pocket Book of British Ceramic Marks. Faber & Faber, London, 1959.
Lehner, Lois. Complete Book of American Kitchen & Dinner Wares. Wallace-Homestead, Iowa, 1980.
Lehner, Lois. Lehner’s Encyclopedia of US Marks on Pottery, Porcelain, and Clay. Collector Books, Kentucky, 1988.
Stiles, Helen E. Pottery in the United States. E.P. Dutton & Co, Inc, New York, 1941.
Tigner-Wise, Lori F. Skeletal Analysis of a Mormon Pioneer Population from Salt Lake Valley, Utah. Master’s Thesis, Dept. of Anthropology, December 1989.
Wetherbee, Jean. A Look at White Ironstone. Wallace-Homestead Book Co, Iowa, 1980.