Study Questions Part 2

PART II: FUNCTIONALIST THEORIES OF ORGANIZATION

Organizations as Machines

In this session, we will begin our exploration of specific organization theories by looking at a group of “mechanistic” theories – theories that emphasize an image of organizations focusing on order, structure, predictability, design, specialization, differentiation and so forth. For many people, this image is synonymous with the very idea of organization and in many companies, our everyday language is full of mechanistic imagery (vacant slot, running smoothly, breakdown in communication, etc.). The text as well as the “father/mother” links on the Boje website give you a summary of mechanistic thinking, in case you are not yet familiar with that approach to organizations. As you review the concepts, think about ways in which these approaches are practiced implicitly or explicitly in your organization and in your own thinking/perception.

Because all theory takes place in a specific historical and cultural context, take a look at some of the pieces listed under that heading. Also be sure to take a look at some of Taylor’s own writing to get a flavor for the theorist himself and his approach to people, work and organizations.

Mechanistic thinking of course creates particular kinds of organizations. The Adbuster and McDonaldization websites provide some points of critique to this kind of thinking.

One of the consequences of the internationalization of organizations, production and marketing has been what Ritzer called the “McDonaldization” of products, of society and of everyday life. It is important that we accurately understand the concept of McDonaldization. Part of the concept is the idea of ease of access and ease of consumption, even though the health reports on fast food have hopefully educated all of you on the damage this type of food does on the body. At a broader level though what it talks about is the way in which our lives, and perhaps even we ourselves become standardized and homogenized.

Using the websites listed below, take a look at the extent to which this applies to your life. The different websites posted give more extended examples and descriptions of the phenomenon but as an opening, this first piece gives a vivid and simple image of what is means by the mcdonalidization of everyday life - the extent to which all of life is standardized, homogenized, and commodified:

The McDonaldization of Society – start here, a good, 1 page introduction of the concept and how it applies to society at large http://www.stedwards.edu/bss/farrall/mcdonize.htm

Next, go to http://www.mcdonaldization.com/whatisit.shtml - this is the main McD website, be sure to look under the different sections and headings

McDonaldization Explained gives a good overall description http://www.geocities.com/mcdonaldization/explained.html - and some useful specific examples; again, be sure to look at different sections

The Wikipedia description of McDonalidization: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonaldization

An interesting interview with George Ritzer re: McDonaldication http://www.mcspotlight.org/people/interviews/ritzer_george.html

For the scholarly, an interesting piece, discussing and critiquing Ritzer’s notions in the context of modern organization theory:
http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/Illumina%20Folder/kell30.htm

There are of course many additional questions that can be raised when we look at specific perspectives and approaches. Does this theory help us to understand organizations better? Does it create a better quality of life in organizations? Does it make organizations more efficient? More effective? Healthier? What is it that we mean by any of these terms and what, for that matter, is the “proper” criterion to use in evaluating organizations and organizational theory?

An additional question we will be looking at in this class is the question of “beauty” or “aesthetics”, keeping in mind that according to many philosophers, all areas of human life must be evaluated using the criteria of truth, ethics and aesthetics. What do these questions mean in your own life? How do they apply to organizations? Issues of aesthetics in organizations are raised through the Guillen and Fredrickson articles (both are available full text on Ebsco), with particular reference to mechanistic organization theory.

Review and Discussion Questions

Describe what is meant by "mechanistic thinking". List in detail the assumptions and concepts of at least 2 specific mechanistic organization theories.
How does/would mechanistic theory apply to your organization? What implications would its application have for structuring the organization itself? Structuring workflow processes? Structuring your own job?
Look at a specific task you are familiar with, e.g. making a hamburger in a fast food restaurant or emptying the clothes dryer at home. Structure the task using Tayloristic principles. What is good and bad about the resultant process? Have you ever had a Taylorized job? Describe your experience.
Imagine that one of the mechanistic theorists visits your worksite. Tell a story about the visit. Keep in mind Boje’s principles of storytelling.
In what ways do Guillen and Fredrickson argue that the mechanistic organization is beautiful? Do you agree/disagree? Explain

Organizations as Organisms

In this session, we will explore a second group of functionalist organization theories, namely organismic theories. These theories visualize organizations as living, growing, breathing organisms that have a purpose in life and a desire to survive. A key change in viewing organizations as organisms is the idea that organizations have a vital and open relationship with the environment that affects how the organization functions and is designed. Be sure to review the chapter, the listed sites and the class notes posted in the pdf section.

Organismic theories are probably the most used and developed groups of theories in the field. Be sure to look at some of the many examples listed to get a flavor for organismic thinking, its ideas and assumptions.

Review and Discussion Questions:

How is the image of organizations as organisms different from that of organizations as mechanisms? How is it the same?
How does organismic theory look at issues of unity, conflict and relationships between the whole and the part?
Much of organismic theory concerns itself with the issue of structural design and the strategic factors impacting structural design, such as the environment, technology, age, size, and soforth. Look at some of the examples in the readings and in the text and see how these factors affect your own organization.
Different organismic theories differ on the issue of environmental determinism, or the question of organizational control over their own internal processes and the relationship between the organization and the environment. Describe the different positions, think of examples supporting the different positions and identify your own stance.
Review one or more of the sites on cooperation – how do assumptions of competition versus cooperation affect how we see the organization and its relationship to the environment? Which set of assumptions is more realistic?

Organizations as Brains

In this section we will look at organizations as brains, the idea that organizations are adaptable, flexible, organic, thinking entities that are capable of learning, changing and adjusting. Specific theories included in this section are information-based contingency theories, cybernetics and learning theory, and holographic theory. Also be sure to look at the literature on the horizontal corporation which very closely aligns with the holographic approaches.

Review and Discussion Questions

How is the image of organizations as brains different from that of organizations as mechanisms/organisms? How is it the same?
How does self-organizing theory look at issues of unity, conflict and relationships between the whole and the part? How about issues of change?
Like organismic theory, much of self-organizing theory focuses on structural design and the nature of fit/alignment between internal design, the external environment and the nature of work (information processing figures in more central here though). Look at some of the examples in the readings and in the text and see how these factors would affect the design of your own organization. How are the prescriptions from self-organizing theory similar to/different from those of organismic theory?
In many ways, self-organizing theory has a view of organizational structure (its role and form) that is diametrically opposed to that of mechanistic theory. Explain. Which version could/would you sell to your CEO and why.
Some people have argued that “brain” theory is only applicable to those with brains, ie. people working in the knowledge industry. Do you agree/disagree?
Review one of more examples of applications of brains theory. What are the things that you found most interesting about these applications? Most troublesome?
One of the arguments against brain theory is that is blurs the distinction between personal and professional lives and allows for increasing intrusion of the organization and its technology in personal space. Furthermore, it has been argued that “the computer is the Trojan horse by which Taylorism is introduced into professional jobs” (see also arguments re: the age of the smart machine, pro and con). Review one or more of the articles on the downside of this approach to organization. What is your position?

Organizations as Political Systems

Unlike mechanistic, organismic and brain theories, political theories argue that people in orgnizations are essentially self-interested and that organizational unity and consensus cannot be taken for granted but rather, must be generated and maintained. The major task of management in this perspective is the negotiation of relationships, the establishment of political coalitions, the creation of shared goals and a perception of shared interest and the general management of the organizational political process.

Review and Discussion Questions

How is the image of organizations as political systems different from that of organizations as mechanisms, organisms and brains? How is it the same?
How does political theory look at issues of unity, conflict and relationships between the whole and the part?
Much of political theory concerns itself with the process of decision-making in organizations, including issues of power and power distribution, issues of the legitimacy of power, different approaches to power, and coming to terms with the less than rational side of organizations. Take a look at each of these issues using the concepts presented in the text and identify examples of this using your own experiences.
How effective are you as a political manager?
Political theory is argued to be more descriptive and less prescriptive than the other theories of organization covered thus far. Also, some people would argue it is more “reality-based” that other theories. What is your position on political theory? Based on the theories that we have covered so far, what in your mind makes for a good theory?
Earlier in the term, it was suggested that we can evaluate organization theories using the primary concerns of philosophers re: ethics, aesthetics and truth. Apply this argument to political theory and to the other theories covered thus far.

Functionalist Theories in Review

Review and Discussion Questions

In this session we will work on a review of functionalist theory, starting with the earliest material covered re: the philosophical bases of theory and ending with the specific functionalist theories introduced in the class to date. Since this session is intended to assist you in the preparation of your first paper, it will be most helpful if you come to class with a general outline of your paper, including the different narratives you intend to be presenting. Be sure to look at David Boje’s site for examples of good and not so good narratives.